The Second World War
| The Second World War | |||
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 Clockwise, starting from the upper left: the first battle of El Alamein ; Chinese buried alive by Japanese soldiers ; Soviet troops during the winter offensive; Japanese planes are preparing to take off from the aircraft carrier Shokaku ; Brandenburg Gate in June 1945; German submarine during the attack | |||
| date | September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945 [1] | ||
| A place | Eurasia , Africa , Oceans | ||
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[ hide ] The Second World War | |
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World War II [~ 1] ( September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945 [24] ) - the war of two world military-political coalitions , which has become the largest armed conflict in the history of mankind .
It was attended by 62 states out of 73 that existed at that time (80% of the world's population [25] ).
The fighting took place in Europe , Asia and Africa [~ 2] and in the waters of all oceans. This is the only conflict in which nuclear weapons have been used .
Members
The number of participating countries varied during the war. Some of them conducted active military operations, others helped their allies with food supplies, and many participated in the war only nominally.
The anti-Hitler coalition included :
- Poland , Great Britain (and its dominions: Canada , India , the Union of South Africa , Australia , New Zealand ), France - entered the war in September 1939;
- Ethiopia - Ethiopian troops under the command of the Ethiopian government in exile continued guerrilla warfare after the annexation of the state in 1936 , officially recognized as an ally on July 12, 1940;
- Denmark , Norway - April 9, 1940;
- Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg - from May 10, 1940;
- Greece - October 28, 1940;
- Yugoslavia - April 6, 1941;
- USSR , Tuva , Mongolia - June 22, 1941;
- USA , Philippines - since December 1941;
- China (Chiang Kai-shek government) - has been fighting against Japan since July 7, 1937, officially recognized as an ally on December 9, 1941;
- Mexico - May 22, 1942;
- Brazil - August 22, 1942.
During the war period, Axis countries were also declared war by states such as Panama , Costa Rica , the Dominican Republic , El Salvador , Haiti , Honduras , Nicaragua , Guatemala , Cuba , Nepal , Argentina , Chile , Peru , Colombia , Iran , Albania , Paraguay , Ecuador , Turkey , Uruguay , Venezuela, Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Liberia , Bolivia , however, these states did not participate in the hostilities, and many of them made a nominal declaration of war only at its very final stage, from April to May 9, 1945.
During the war, some states that emerged from the Nazi bloc joined the coalition:
- Iraq - January 17, 1943;
- Kingdom of Italy - October 13, 1943;
- Romania - August 23, 1944;
- Bulgaria - September 5, 1944;
- Finland - September 19, 1944.
On the other hand, the axis countries and their allies participated in the war :
- Germany , Slovakia - September 1, 1939;
- Italy, Albania - June 10, 1940;
- Hungary - April 11, 1941;
- Iraq - May 1, 1941;
- Romania, Croatia , Finland - June 1941;
- Japan , Manzhou-go - December 7, 1941;
- Bulgaria - December 13, 1941;
- Thailand - January 25, 1942;
- China (Wang Jingwei government) - January 9, 1943;
- Burma - August 1, 1943;
- Philippines - September 1944.
Also did not enter the Nazi block of Iran (until 1941). Puppet states were created on the territory of the occupied countries that were not participants in World War II and joined the fascist coalition: Vichy France , the Greek state , the Italian Social Republic , Hungary , Serbia , Montenegro , Macedonia , the Pindian-Meglen Principality , Menjiang , Burma , the Philippines , Vietnam , Cambodia , Laos , Azad Hind, Wang Jingwei regime . Autonomous puppet governments have been created in a number of German Reich Commissariats : the Quisling regime in Norway , the MΓΌssert regime in the Netherlands , the Belarusian Central Council in Belarus . On the side of Germany and Japan, many collaborative military units created from citizens of the opposing side also fought: ROA , SS foreign divisions(Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Estonian, 2 Latvian, Norwegian-Danish, 2 Dutch, 2 Belgian, 2 Bosnian, French, Albanian), a number of foreign legions. Also in the armed forces of the countries of the Nazi bloc, the volunteer forces of the states that formally remained neutral fought: Spain ( Blue Division ), Sweden and Portugal .
Territories
All hostilities can be divided into 5 theaters of operations :
- European theater of operations
- East European Theater: USSR ( Great Patriotic War ), Poland , Finland , Northern Norway , Czechoslovakia , Romania , Hungary , Bulgaria , Yugoslavia , Austria (eastern part), East Germany , Barents Sea , Baltic Sea , Black Sea .
- West European Theater : West Germany , Denmark , Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg , Netherlands , France , Great Britain (aerial bombardment), Atlantic .
- Mediterranean Theater : Yugoslavia , Greece , Albania , Italy , Mediterranean islands ( Malta , Cyprus , etc.), Egypt , Libya , French North Africa , Syria , Lebanon , Iraq , Iran , the Mediterranean Sea .
- African Theater : Ethiopia , Italian Somalia , British Somalia , Kenya , Sudan , French West Africa , French Equatorial Africa , Madagascar .
- Pacific Theater : China (eastern and northeastern ), Japan ( Korea , South Sakhalin , Kuril Islands ), USSR ( Far East ), Aleutian Islands , Mongolia , Hong Kong , French Indochina , Burma , Andaman Islands , Malaya , Singapore , Sarawak , Dutch East Indies , Sabah , Brunei ,New Guinea , Papua , Solomon Islands , Philippines , Hawaii , Guam , Wake , Midway , Mariana Islands , Caroline Islands , Marshall Islands , Gilbert Islands , many small islands of the Pacific Ocean , most of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean .
War background
The background of the war in Europe
The Treaty of Versailles extremely limited the possibilities of Germany in the military sphere. From the point of view of Germany, the conditions dictated by Versailles were unfair legally and unfeasible economically. Moreover, the amount of reparations was not agreed in advance and doubled. All this created international tension and confidence that no later than 20 years later the world war would be resumed [26] .
In April-May 1922, the Genoa Conference was held in the northern Italian port city of Rapallo . Representatives of Soviet Russia were also invited : Georgy Chicherin (chairman), Leonid Krasin , Adolf Ioffe . Germany was represented by Walter Rathenau . The main topic of the conference was the mutual rejection of claims for compensation for damage caused during the hostilities in the First World War . The result of the conference was the conclusion of the Rapallo Treaty on April 16, 1922 between the RSFSR andWeimar Republic . The agreement provided for the immediate restoration in full of diplomatic relations between the RSFSR and Germany. For Soviet Russia, this was the first international treaty in its history. For Germany, which until now was illegal in the field of international politics, this agreement was of fundamental importance, since by doing so it began to return to the number of states recognized by the international community.
Shortly after the signing of the Rapallo Treaty , on August 11, 1922, a secret cooperation agreement was concluded between the Reichswehr and the Red Army [27] . Germany and Soviet Russia now have the opportunity to maintain and mutually develop the military-technical potential accumulated during the First World War [28] [29]. As a result of cooperation, the Red Army gained access to the technical achievements of the German military industry and the working methods of the German General Staff, and the Reichswehr was able to begin training pilots, tankmen and chemical weapons specialists in three schools on the territory of the USSR, and on the basis of subsidiaries of the German military industry he could acquaint his officers with new models of weapons prohibited in Germany [30] .
On July 27, 1928, the Briand-Kellogg Pact was signed in Paris - an agreement to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. The pact was to enter into force on July 24, 1929. On February 9, 1929, before the pact officially entered into force, the so-called β Litvinov Protocol β was signed in Moscow - the Moscow Protocol on the early entry into force of the obligations of the Briand-Kellogg Pact between the USSR, Poland, Romania , Estonia and Latvia . On April 1, 1929, Turkey joined him and on April 5, Lithuania .
On July 25, 1932, the Soviet Union and Poland entered into a non-aggression pact .
With the advent of the National Socialist Workers Party , led by Adolf Hitler , in 1933, Germany, without meeting any special objections from Great Britain and France, and in some places with their support [31] , soon begins to ignore many of the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles - in particular, it is restoring draft in the army and is rapidly increasing the production of weapons and military equipment. October 14, 1933 Germany leaves the League of Nations and refuses to participate in the Geneva Conference on Disarmament. On January 26, 1934, the Non-aggression Treaty between Germany and Poland is concluded . On July 24, 1934, Germany made an attempt to implement the Anschluss of Austria by inspiringVienna is an anti-government coup, but is forced to abandon its plans due to the sharply negative position of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini , who advanced four divisions to the Austrian border.
In the 1930s, Italy pursued a no less aggressive foreign policy. October 3, 1935 she invades Ethiopia and by May 1936 captures it . In 1936, the Italian Empire was proclaimed . The Mediterranean Sea was named "Our Sea" ( lat. Mare Nostrum ). The act of unjustified aggression causes discontent among the Western powers and the League of Nations . The deterioration of relations with the Western powers pushes Italy towards rapprochement with Germany. In January 1936, Mussolini agreed in principle to the Anschluss , subject to their refusal to expand on the Adriatic . March 7, 1936 German troops occupyRhine Demilitarized Zone . Great Britain and France do not show any real resistance to this, confining themselves to a formal protest. November 25, 1936 Germany and Japan conclude the Anti-Comintern Pact on the joint struggle against communism . November 6, 1937 Italy joins the pact.
In March 1938, Germany freely annexed Austria .
September 30, 1938 the British Prime Minister Chamberlain and Hitler signed a declaration of non-aggression and the peaceful settlement of disputes between Britain and Germany - an agreement known in the USSR as the Munich agreement . In 1938, Chamberlain met Hitler three times, and after meeting in Munich he returned home with his famous statement βI brought you peace!β. In fact, this agreement, concluded without the participation of the Czechoslovak leadership , led to its partition by Germany, with the participation of Hungary and Poland . It is considered a classic example of the pacification of an aggressor (see Reasons for the Second World War.), which subsequently only prompted him to further expand his aggressive policy and became one of the reasons for the outbreak of World War II.
W. Churchill, October 3, 1938 :
Great Britain was offered a choice between war and dishonor. She chose dishonor and will receive war.
Original text (English) [show]
French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet and German Foreign Minister Joachim Ribbentrop signed the Franco-German Declaration on December 6, 1938.
In October 1938, as a result of the Munich Agreement, Germany annexed the Czech Republic of Sudetenland . Consent to this act is given by England and France, and the opinion of Czechoslovakia itself is not taken into account. March 15, 1939 Germany in violation of the agreement occupies the Czech Republic . A German protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia is being created on Czech territory . Hungary and Poland participate in the division of Czechoslovakia : Slovakia (except for the predominantly Hungarian southern regions that moved to Hungary) was declared an independent pro-Nazi state in the vicinity of the city of Cesky TesinPolish troops enter, and the Carpathian Ukraine , which had proclaimed independence , was previously partially captured by the Hungarian troops , after heavy fighting with the local militia (see the Carpathian Sich ), goes completely under the occupation by Admiral Horthy . On February 24, 1939, Hungary joins the Anti-Comintern Pact , Spain on March 27 , where Francisco Franco came to power after the end of the civil war .
Until now, the aggressive actions of Germany have not met with serious resistance from Great Britain and France, who do not dare to start a war and try to save the Versailles Treaty system with reasonable, from their point of view, concessions (the so-called " pacification policy "). However, after Hitler violated the Munich Treaty, the need for a tougher policy is becoming increasingly recognized in both countries, and in the event of further aggression by Germany, Britain and France give military guarantees to Poland . After the capture of Albania by Italy on April 7-12, 1939, Romania , Turkey and Greece receive the same guarantees .
According to M.I. Meltiukhov , objective conditions also made the Soviet Union an adversary of the Versailles system. Due to the internal crisis caused by the events of the First World War , the October Revolution and the Civil War , the level of influence of the country on European and world politics has significantly decreased. At the same time, the strengthening of the Soviet state and the results of industrialization stimulated the leadership of the USSR to take measures to return the status of a world power. The Soviet government skillfully used official diplomatic channels, the illegal capabilities of the Comintern , social propaganda, pacifist ideas, anti-fascism, help some victims of aggressors to create the image of the main fighter for peace and social progress . The struggle for "collective security" became Moscowβs foreign policy tactic aimed at strengthening the weight of the USSR in international affairs and at preventing the consolidation of the remaining great powers without its participation. However, the Munich agreement , drawn up without an invitation to the negotiating table of Soviet Russia, clearly showed that the USSR is still far from becoming an equal subject of European politics [32] .
After the military alarm of 1927, the USSR began to actively prepare for war [33] . The possibility of an attack by a coalition of capitalist countries was replicated by official propaganda. The military, in order to have a trained mobilization reserve, began to actively and universally train the urban population in military specialties, mass training in parachuting , aircraft modeling, etc. (see OSOAVIAHIM ). It was an honor and prestige to pass the TRP standards (ready for work and defense), earn the rank and badge β Voroshilovsky shooter β for well-aimed shooting , and along with the new title βorder bearerβ, the prestigious rank βbadge badgeβ also appeared.
As a result of the Rapallo accords reached and subsequent secret agreements, an aviation training center was created in Lipetsk in 1925 , in which German instructors trained German and Soviet cadets. A training center for tank commanders (the Kama secret training center ) was created near Kazan in 1929 , in which German instructors also trained German and Soviet cadets. During the schoolβs functioning, 30 Reichswehr officers were trained for the German side [34] [35] . In 1926-1933, tests of German tanks were also carried out in Kazan (the Germans called them " tractors " for secrecy )[36] . In Volsk , a center for training in the use of chemical weapons was created (the Tomka facility) [37] [38] . In 1933, after Hitler came to power, all these schools were closed.
With the beginning of the 1930s, the " theory of deep operation " became the de facto basic military concept in the Red Army . The main emphasis is on the creation and implementation of highly mobile mechanized parts. In accordance with the concept of the theory, the role of shock force was assigned to mechanized corps . The main idea of ββthe theory was to strike across the entire depth of the enemyβs defense using artillery, aviation, armored forces and airborne assaults in order to defeat the entire enemy operational group. In the course of a deep operation, two goals were achieved: breaking through the enemyβs defense front with a simultaneous blow to its entire tactical depth and immediately introducing a group of mobile troops to develop a tactical breakthrough into operational success [39] .
On January 11, 1939, the Peopleβs Commissariat of the Defense Industry was abolished, instead of it, the Peopleβs Commissariat of Ammunition , the Peopleβs Commissariat of Armaments , the Peopleβs Commissariat of the Shipbuilding Industry , the Peopleβs Commissariat of the Aviation Industry were created . All drug commissariats produced only military products [40] .
In 1940, the USSR began to tighten the work regime and increase the length of the working day of workers and employees. All state, cooperative and public enterprises and institutions were transferred from six days to seven days, counting the seventh day of the week - Sunday - as a day of rest. Stricter liability for absenteeism. Under pain of imprisonment, the dismissal and transfer to another organization without the permission of the director were prohibited (see " Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces of 06/26/1940 ").
The army hastily takes into service and begins mass production of a new Yak-1 fighter , without even completing state tests. 1940 is the year of mastering the production of the latest T-34 and KV tanks , finalizing the SVT rifle and adopting the 1941 PPSh submachine gun .
During the political crisis of 1939, two military-political blocs formed in Europe: the Anglo-French and the German-Italian.
Poland, having concluded allied agreements with Great Britain and France, which were obliged to help it in the event of German aggression, refuses to make concessions in negotiations with Germany (in particular, on the question of the Polish corridor) On April 16, 1939, the Soviet side made an official proposal to conclude a trilateral agreement on mutual assistance between England, France and the Soviet Union, thereby developing a common position on actions in the event of German aggression against Poland. It was proposed to sign a military convention of the three states, which Poland could join if desired. The British government did not respond to proposals made by the Soviet side until May 8 - the proposals were actually rejected. These actions convinced Moscow of Great Britainβs reluctance to conclude a military pact with the USSR in order to prevent Germanyβs capture of Poland. However, in a sluggish form, negotiations continued [41] .
On May 20, 1939, the German ambassador to Moscow, Schulenburg, had a lengthy conversation with Molotov . By the end of May, Hitler came to the conclusion that it was necessary to speed up negotiations with the Soviet Union in order to disrupt the Anglo-Soviet negotiations. The Soviet government was suspicious of Berlin, but, seeing the passivity of Britain and France, agreed to negotiations with Germany [41] .
On August 5, 1939, the German ambassador to the USSR, Schulenburg, read out to Molotov the message of German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop , in which he expressed his readiness to personally come to Moscow to "settle German-Russian relations." The goal of the German side was to sign the non-aggression treaty between the USSR and Germany as soon as possible, which would exclude Soviet Russia from probable opponents in the war planned by Germany against Poland. At the same time, Hitler was sure that without the participation of the USSR, the troops of Great Britain and France would not decide to intervene in the war in Poland [41] .
On August 19, 1939, Molotov agreed to accept Ribbentrop in Moscow to sign an agreement with Germany, and on August 23, the USSR signed a non-aggression pact . The secret supplementary protocol provided for the division of spheres of interests in Eastern Europe , including the Baltic states and Poland [41] .
Background of the Asian War
Japan's occupation of Manchuria and Northern China began in 1931 . On July 7, 1937, Japan launched an offensive inland China (see the Sino-Japanese War ). The expansion of Japan in East Asia was slightly hindered by internal conflicts - both problems associated with accelerated economic development (for example, deformation of the structure of the economy), as well as conflicts in the military and financial elites, which disagreed about the direction of expansion. It is characteristic that pacifism in that period in Japan had practically no support.
The expansion of Japan met with the active opposition of the great powers. Great Britain , the USA and the Netherlands imposed economic sanctions against Japan. USSR also did not remain indifferent to developments in the Far East , especially since the Soviet-Japanese border conflicts 1938 - 1939 years (of which the most famous was the fighting at Lake Khasan and the undeclared war in Khalkhin Goal ) threatened to escalate into a full-scale war.
In the end, Japan faced a serious choice in which direction to continue its further expansion: north against the USSR or south against China and the European and American colonies in Asia. The choice was made in favor of the "southern option". On April 13, 1941, a treaty between Japan and the USSR on neutrality for a period of 5 years was signed in Moscow. Japan began preparations for a war against US allies in the Pacific (Great Britain, the Netherlands).
December 7, 1941, Japan strikes at the American naval base Pearl Harbor . Since December 1941, the Sino-Japanese War has been considered part of World War II.
The first period of the war (September 1939 - June 1941)
The invasion of Poland
On May 23, 1939, a meeting was held in Hitler's office in the presence of a number of senior officers. It was noted that βthe Polish problem is closely linked to the inevitable conflict with England and France, a quick victory over which is problematic. Moreover, Poland is unlikely to be able to play the role of a barrier against Bolshevism. At present, the task of German foreign policy is to expand living space to the East , ensure a guaranteed food supply and eliminate the threat from the East. Poland should be captured at the first opportunity. β
On August 23, Germany and the USSR signed a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union , in which the parties agreed on non-aggression against each other (including in the event of hostilities of one of the parties against third countries, which was the usual practice of German agreements in that time). The secret supplementary protocol to the treaty between the USSR and Germany fixed the division of spheres of interests in Europe.
On August 31, the German press reported: "... on Thursday at about 8 p.m. the premises of the radio station in Glavice were seized by the Poles . " In fact, they were SS soldiers disguised in Polish military uniform , led by Alfred Naujoks [42] .
On September 1, 1939, the German armed forces crossed the borders of Poland , Slovakian troops also took part in the fighting on the German side , a little later this provoked the declaration of war on the part of England , France and other countries that had allied obligations with Poland.
At 04:26 a.m., the Luftwaffeβs first combat flight was carried out by the Ju-87 dive link of Lieutenant Bruno Dillei (he carried out the first bombing in this war). The aim was the Polish control points located at the railway station Dirschau (Tczew). At the same time, Frank Neubert shot down the first Polish aircraft - the PZL P.11C fighter .
At 4 hours 45 minutes he arrived in Danzig on a friendly visit and met with enthusiasm by the local population, the German training ship - the obsolete battleship Schleswig-Holstein - opened fire on Polish fortifications on Westerplatte .
On the afternoon of September 1, Hitler spoke in a military uniform in the Reichstag . In justification of the invasion of Poland, Hitler referred to the attack on a radio station in Glavice . At the same time, he carefully tried to avoid the term βwarβ, for fear of the entry into conflict of England and France, which gave Poland their respective guarantees. The order issued by him spoke only of "active defense" against Polish aggression.
Benito Mussolini proposed convening a conference to peacefully resolve the Polish question, which met with support from the Western powers, but Hitler refused, saying that it was not necessary to provide diplomacy with what was conquered by weapons [43] .
September 1, the Soviet Union introduced universal military service . At the same time, the draft age was reduced from 21 to 19 years, and for some categories to 18 years. The law immediately entered into force, and in a short time the army reached 5 million people, which amounted to about 3% of the population.
September 3 at 9 oβclock in the morning England, at 12:20 - France, as well as Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany. For several days, Canada , Newfoundland , the Union of South Africa and Nepal joined them . World War II began [44] . Hitler and his entourage until the last day hoped that the Allies did not dare to enter the war and that the case would end with "second Munich ." Paul Schmidt, German Foreign Ministry chief translator, described the shock state Hitler had when British Ambassador Neville Henderson appeared in the Chancelleryat 9 a.m. on September 3, he transmitted an ultimatum to his government demanding that troops be withdrawn from Polish territory to their original positions. Hering, who was present at the same time, said: βIf we lose this war, we can only rely on God's mercyβ [45] .
On September 3, in Bydgoszcz (formerly Bromberg), the city of Pomeranian Voivodeship (formerly West Prussia ), which passed the Treaty of Versailles to Poland, there was a massacre on a national basis - the Bromberg pogrom . In the city, whose 3/4 population consisted of Germans, several hundred civilians of German descent were killed . The death toll ranged from one to three hundred according to the Polish side [46] and from one to five thousand dead according to the book published by the German extremist publishing house [47] .
The German offensive developed according to plan. Polish troops as a whole proved to be a weak military force compared to the coordinated German Panzerwaffe and Luftwaffe . At the same time, on the Western front, the allied Anglo-French troops did not take any active action (see. The Strange War ). Only at sea the war began immediately, and also by Germany: already on September 3, the German submarine U-30 without warning attacked the English passenger liner Athenia .
On September 5, the United States and Japan declared their neutrality in the European War [48] .
On September 7, German troops under the command of Heinz Guderian launched an attack on the Polish defensive line near VisnΓ‘ . 720 Polish soldiers and officers held back the 40,000 enemy grouping until September 10.
During the first week of fighting in Poland, German troops split the Polish front in several places and occupied part of Mazovia , West Prussia , the Upper Silesian industrial region and Western Galicia . By September 9, the Germans managed to break the Polish resistance along the entire front line and approach Warsaw .
On September 10, the Polish commander in chief Edward Rydz-Smigly ordered the general retreat to Southeast Poland, but the bulk of his troops, unable to retreat beyond the Vistula , were surrounded. By mid-September, having not received support from the west, the armed forces of Poland practically ceased to exist as a whole; only local centers of resistance were preserved.
On September 14, Guderianβs 19th corps captured Brest from East Prussia . Polish troops under the command of General Plisovsky defended the Brest Fortress for several more days . On the night of September 17, her defenders in an organized manner left the forts and retreated behind the Bug .
On the morning of September 17, in a note from the Soviet government , handed to the Polish ambassador to the USSR in Moscow, it was stated that "since the Polish state and its government ceased to exist, the Soviet Union is obliged to take under its protection the life and property of the population of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus ."
On the same morning of September 17, in accordance with the terms of the secret supplementary protocol to the non-aggression treaty between the USSR and Germany , the Soviet Union deployed its troops in the eastern regions of Poland [49] . Internal propaganda in the USSR declares that "the Red Army takes protection of the fraternal peoples." At 6 a.m., the Red Army crossed the state border with two military groups. On the same day, Molotov sent the German Ambassador to the USSR Schulenburg congratulations on the "brilliant success of the German Wehrmacht" [50]. Despite the fact that neither the USSR nor Poland declared war on each other, some historians (for example, A.M. Nekrich ) consider this day to be the date the USSR entered the Second World War.
On the evening of September 17, the Polish government and high command fled to Romania .
On September 28, the Germans occupied Warsaw . On the same day in Moscow, the Treaty of Friendship and the Border between the USSR and Germany was signed , establishing a line of demarcation between German and Soviet troops on the territory of former Poland approximately along the Curzon line .
On October 6, the last units of the Polish army capitulated.
Part of the western Polish lands became part of the Third Reich. These lands were subject to the so-called " Germanization ". Polish and Jewish populations were deported to the central regions of Poland, where a governor general was created . The situation of the Jews became the most difficult, it was decided to drive all of them into the ghetto .
The territories that fell into the zone of influence of the USSR were included in the Ukrainian SSR , Byelorussian SSR and Lithuania, which was independent at that time . In the territories included in the USSR, Soviet power was established, socialist transformations were carried out ( nationalization of industry, collectivization of the peasantry), which was accompanied by deportation and repression of the former ruling classes - representatives of the bourgeoisie, landowners, wealthy peasants, and part of the intelligentsia.
On October 6, 1939, after the end of hostilities, Hitler made a proposal to convene a peace conference with the participation of all the major powers to resolve the existing contradictions. France and Great Britain announced that they would agree to the conference only if the Germans immediately withdraw their troops from Poland and the Czech Republic and restore independence to these countries. Germany rejected these conditions, and as a result, the peace conference did not take place.
All the while the German troops were occupied in the East in operations against Poland, the allied Anglo-French troops did not take any active military operations on land and in the air. And the quick defeat of Poland made the time period during which Germany could be fought on two fronts very short. As a result, the British expeditionary forces, consisting of 10 divisions, were transferred to France from September 1939 to February 1940 and were inactive. In the American press, that period was called the β Strange War β.
The German commander A. Jodl later claimed:
βIf we still did not fail in 1939, it was only because about 110 French and British divisions , which stood against 25 German divisions in the West during our war with Poland, were completely inactiveβ [51] .
Battle of the Atlantic
Despite the rejection of the peace conference, Great Britain and France from September 1939 to April 1940 continue to wage a passive war and do not attempt any offensive. Active military operations are conducted only on sea lanes. Even before the war, the German command sent to the Atlantic Ocean2 battleships and 18 submarines, which with the opening of hostilities launched attacks on the merchant ships of Great Britain and its allies. From September to December 1939, Great Britain lost 114 ships from German submarine attacks, and 471 in 1940, while the Germans lost only 9 submarines in 1939. Attacks on the sea communications of Great Britain led to the loss of 1/3 of the tonnage of the British merchant fleet by the summer of 1941 and created a serious threat to the country's economy.
Soviet-Finnish War
During the Soviet-Finnish negotiations of 1938-1939, the USSR tries to get Finland to concede part of the Karelian Isthmus (transfer of these territories tore the β Mannerheim Line β in the most important Vyborg direction), as well as leasing out several islands and parts of the Hanko Peninsula (Gangut) under military bases, offering in exchange the territory in Karelia with a total area of ββtwice the required Finnish [52] . Finland, not wanting to make concessions and make military commitments, insists on concluding a trade agreement and consent to the remilitarization of the Γ land Islands .
Three months before the Mineil incident, Finnish Prime Minister Kayander, at a review of Finnish reservists, states:
We are proud that we have few weapons rusting in the arsenals, few military uniforms, rotting and moldy in warehouses. But in Finland we have a high standard of living and an education system that we can be proud of [53] .
In turn, Joseph Stalin, a few months before the war at the talks in Moscow, said:
We can do nothing with geography, just like you ... Since Leningrad cannot be moved, you have to move the border away from it [54] .
November 30, 1939 USSR invades Finland . On December 14, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations for starting a war . When the USSR began to be expelled from the League of Nations, then out of 52 states that were members of the League, 12 of their representatives were not sent to the conference at all, and 11 did not vote for the expulsion. And among these 11 are Sweden, Norway and Denmark.
Between December and February, Soviet troops consisting of 15 Soviet rifle divisions made many attempts to break through the "Mannerheim Line" defended by 15 Finnish infantry divisions, but did not achieve much success in this. The failure of Suomussalmi ends in an attempt to cut the territory of Finland and enter Oulu [53] .
Subsequently, there was a continuous buildup of Red Army forces in all directions.
Great Britain and France decide to prepare a landing on the Scandinavian Peninsula in order to prevent Germany from seizing Swedish iron ore deposits and at the same time provide ways for the future transfer of their troops to Finland's aid; also begins the transfer of long-range bomber aircraft to the Middle East to bombard and capture Bakuβs oil fields in the event England enters the war on the side of Finland. However, Sweden and Norway , seeking to maintain neutrality, categorically refuse to accept Anglo-French troops on their territory.February 16, 1940British destroyers attack the German ship Altmark in Norwegian territorial waters and free British sailors on board from prize ships. On March 1, Hitler, formerly interested in maintaining the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries, signs a directive on Operation Weserubung : the capture of Denmark (as a transshipment base) and Norway to prevent the possible landing of the Allies.
In early March 1940, Soviet troops broke through the Mannerheim Line and captured 3/4 of Vyborg . On March 13, 1940, a peace treaty between Finland and the USSR was signed in Moscow , according to which Soviet requirements were satisfied: the border on the Karelian Isthmus in the Leningrad region was pushed to the northwest from 32 to 150 km, a number of islands in the Gulf of Finland went to the USSR [55] .
Despite the end of the war, the Anglo-French command continues to develop a plan for a military operation in Norway, but the Germans manage to get ahead of them.
European Blitzkrieg
On April 9, 1940, Germany invades Denmark and Norway .
In Denmark, Germans unimpededly occupy all the most important cities with naval and airborne assault forces and destroy Danish aircraft in a few hours. Under the threat of civilian bombing, Danish King Christian X forced to sign surrender and orders the army to lay down their arms.
In Norway, the Germans 9 - April 10 captured the main Norwegian ports: Oslo , Trondheim , Bergen , Narvik . On April 14, Anglo-French troops landed near Narvik , on April 16 - in Namsus , on April 17 - in Ondalsnes . On April 19, the Allies launched an offensive on Trondheim , but failed and in early May were forced to withdraw their forces from Central Norway. After a series of battles for Narvik, the Allies will also be evacuated from the northern part of the country in early June.June 10, 1940 capitulate the last part of the Norwegian army. Norway is ruled by the German occupation administration (Reich Commissariat); Denmark, declared a German protectorate , was able to maintain partial independence in internal affairs.
After the occupation of Denmark, British and American troops, in order to prevent Germany from invading Danish non-continental possessions, occupied its overseas territories of strategic importance - the Faroe Islands , Iceland and Greenland (see Faroe Islands in World War II , Invasion of Iceland (1940 ) , ).
On May 10, 1940, Germany invaded Belgium , the Netherlands, and Luxembourg with 135 divisions . The 1st group of the Allied armies is advancing into Belgium, but does not have time to help the Dutch, as the German Army Group βBβ is making a rapid throw to South Holland and is already capturing Rotterdam on May 12 . On May 14, Rotterdam undergoes massive bombing , which leads to enormous destruction and casualties among the civilian population . After the threat of similar bombing of Amsterdam and May 15 The Hague the government of the Netherlands is capitulating.
On May 10, German paratroopers in Belgium capture bridges over the Alberta Canal , which makes it possible for large German tank forces to force it to the approach of the Allies and enter the Belgian Plain. May 17, Brussels fell .
But the main attack Army Group "A" . Having occupied Luxembourg on May 10 , three Guderian tank divisions cross the South Ardennes and cross the Maas River west of Sedan on May 14 . At the same time, Gothaβs tank corps breaks through the Northern Ardennes, which are difficult for heavy equipment, and crosses the Mayas River north of Dinan on May 13 . German armada rushes west. The late attacks of the French, for which the German strike through the Ardennes is a complete surprise, are not able to restrain it. May 16 parts of Guderian reach Oise; May 20, they go to the coast of Pas de Calais near Abbeville and turn north, to the rear of the Allied armies. 28 Anglo-Franco-Belgian divisions are surrounded.
Trying to organize the Allied Command 21 - May 23 counterpunch at Arras would be successful, but Guderian price almost completely destroyed by a tank battalion stops her. On May 22, Guderian cuts off the allies' retreat to Boulogne , on May 23 - to Calais, and goes to Ghrylin 10 km from Dunkirk , the last port through which the Anglo-French troops could evacuate, but on May 24 he was forced to stop the attack for two days by personal order Hitler (βThe Miracle at Dunkirkβ) (according to another version, the reason for the stop was not Hitlerβs order, but the entrance of the tanks into the action areanaval artillery of the English fleet, which could shoot them almost with impunity). The respite allows the Allies to strengthen the defense of Dunkirk and begin Operation Dynamo Germans surround a large French group, which surrenders on May 31to evacuate their forces by sea. On May 26, German troops break through the Belgian front in West Flanders , and on May 28 Belgium surrenders , contrary to Allied demands. On the same day in the area of Lille . Part of the French troops and almost the entire English army (224 thousand) were taken out on British ships via Dunkirk. The Germans capture all British and French artillery and armored vehicles, vehicles abandoned by the Allies during the retreat. After Dunkirk, Great Britain turned out to be practically unarmed, although it retained the personnel of the army.
On June 5, German troops begin an offensive on the Lahn - Abbeville section . Attempts by the French command to hastily fill a gap in the defense by unprepared divisions are unsuccessful. The French lose one battle after another. The defenses of the French disintegrate, and the command hastily withdraws troops to the south.
June 10, Italy declares war on Britain and France. Italian troops invade the southern regions of France , but cannot advance far. On the same day, the French government is evacuated from Paris . On June 11, the Germans cross the Marne at the Chateau Thierry . On June 14, they enter Paris without a fight, and two days later enter the Rhone Valley. On June 16, Marshal Petain formed the new government of France, which already on the night of June 17 turned to Germany with a request for a truce. June 18, French General Charles De Gaulle , who fled to Londoncalls on the French to continue the resistance. On June 21, the Germans, having found almost no resistance, reach the Loire in the Nantes - Tour section , on the same day their tanks occupy Lyon .
On June 22, in Compiegne, in the same car in which the surrender of Germany was signed in 1918, a Franco-German truce was signed , according to which France agrees to occupy most of its territory, demobilize almost the entire land army and intern the navy and aviation. In a free zone in a coup on July 10 established an authoritarian regime Petain ( Vichy regime ), committed to close cooperation with Germany ( collaboration) Despite the military power of France, the defeat of this country was so sudden and complete that it did not lend itself to any rational explanation.
Francois Darlan, Commander-in-Chief of the Vichy Forces , orders the withdrawal of the entire French fleet to the shores of French North Africa . Because of fears that the entire French fleet might come under German and Italian control, on July 3, 1940, the British Navy and Air Force, as part of Operation Catapult , attack French ships in Mers al-Kebir. By the end of July, the British destroy or neutralize almost the entire French fleet.
Joining of the Baltic states, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR
As early as the fall of 1939, Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania concluded mutual assistance agreements with the USSR, also known as base agreements, according to which Soviet military bases were deployed on the territory of these countries. On June 17, 1940, the USSR presented an ultimatum to the Baltic states, demanding the resignation of governments, the formation of people's governments instead of them, the dissolution of parliaments, the holding of early elections and consent to the introduction of an additional contingent of Soviet troops. In this situation, the Baltic governments were forced to accept these requirements. With active support from Moscow in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania state coups are. Communist-friendly governments come to power.
After the introduction of additional units of the Red Army into the Baltic States, in mid-July 1940 in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, in the conditions of a significant Soviet military presence, non-alternative elections to the supreme authorities are held . Communist parties were the only parties allowed to vote. In their election programs, they did not mention a word about plans for joining the USSR [56] . On July 21, 1940, the newly elected parliaments, which included a pro-Soviet majority [56] , proclaim the creation of Soviet socialist republics and send petitions to the Soviet Union to join the Soviet Union. August 3, Lithuanian SSR ,August 5 - the Latvian SSR , and August 6 - the Estonian SSR were accepted into the USSR.
On June 27, 1940, the USSR government sent two ultimatum notes to the Romanian government, demanding the return of Bessarabia and the transfer of Northern Bukovina to the USSR as βcompensation for the enormous damage that was inflicted on the Soviet Union and the population of Bessarabia by Romaniaβs 22-year-old domination in Bessarabia.β Bessarabia was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1812 after the victory over Turkey in the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812 ; in 1918 , taking advantage of the Civil Warin the territory of the former Russian Empire, Romania sent troops to the territory of Bessarabia, and then included it in its structure. Bukovina never was part of the Russian Empire (historically, almost all of Bukovina, except for its southern part, belonged to Russia in the X-XI centuries), but was inhabited mainly by Ukrainians. Romania , not counting on support from other states in the event of a war with the USSR, was forced to agree to meet these requirements. On June 28, Romania withdraws its troops and administration from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, after which Soviet troops are introduced there. On August 2, the Moldavian SSR was formed on part of the territory of Bessarabia and part of the territory of the former Moldavian ASSR. The south of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina are organizationally included in the Ukrainian SSR .
Battle of Britain
After the surrender of France, Germany invites Great Britain to make peace, but is refused. On July 16, 1940, Hitler issued a directive on the invasion of Great Britain (Operation Sea Lion). However, the command of the German Navy and ground forces, referring to the power of the British Navy and the Wehrmachtβs lack of experience in landing operations, requires the Air Force to first ensure air supremacy . In August, the Germans began bombing the UK to undermine its military-economic potential, demoralize the population, prepare for the invasion, and ultimately force it to surrender. German Air Force and Navy carry out systematic attacks on English ships and convoys in the English Channel. On 4 September the Luftwaffe starts massive bombing of British cities in the south, London , Rochester , Birmingham , Manchester .
Despite the fact that the British suffered heavy losses during the bombing of civilians, in fact, they managed to win the battle for Britain: Germany was forced to abandon the landing operation. Since December, the activity of the German Air Force has declined significantly due to worsened weather conditions. The Germans did not succeed in achieving their main goal - to bring Britain out of the war.
Battles in Africa, the Mediterranean and the Balkans
After Italy entered the war, Italian troops began fighting for control of the Mediterranean , North and East Africa . June 11, Italian aviation strikes at the British naval base in Malta . On June 13, Italians bombard British bases in Kenya . In early July, Italian forces invaded the British colonies of Kenya and Sudan from the territory of Ethiopia and Somalia , however, due to indecisive actions, they were unable to advance far. August 3, 1940 Italian troops invadeBritish Somalia . Taking advantage of numerical superiority, they manage to oust the British and South African forces through the strait into the British colony of Aden .
After the surrender of France, the administrations of some French colonies refused to recognize the Vichy government . In London, General De Gaulle formed the Fighting France movement, which did not recognize the shameful surrender. The British armed forces, together with the units of the "Fighting France" begin the struggle with the Vichy troops for control of the colonies. By September, they were able to peacefully establish control over almost all of French Equatorial Africa . On October 27, the supreme governing body of the French territories occupied by De Gaulle's troops, the Empire Defense Council, was formed in Brazzaville . September 24thBritish troops and units of "Fighting France" are defeated by Vichy troops in Senegal ( Dakar operation ). However, in November, they manage to capture Gabon ( Gabon operation ).
On September 13, Italians invade British Egypt from Libyan territory . Having occupied Sidi Barrani on September 16 , the Italians stop, and the British retreat to Mersa Matruh . To improve their position in Africa and the Mediterranean , Italians decide to conquer Greece . After the refusal of the Greek government to let Italian troops into its territory on October 28, 1940, Italy begins an offensive. The Italians manage to capture part of the Greek territory, but by November 8 they were stopped, and on November 14 the Greek army goes on the counterattack, completely liberates the territory of the country and enters Albania .
In November 1940, British aircraft attacked the Italian fleet in Taranto , making it extremely difficult for the Italian troops to transport goods by sea to North Africa . Taking advantage of this, on December 9, 1940, British troops went on the offensive in Egypt, in January they occupied all of Cyrenaica, and by February 1941 they went to the El Ageyla region .
In early January, the British also launched an offensive in East Africa. Repulsed January 21 Italians Kassala , they are invading from Sudan to Eritrea , capture Keren ( March 27 ), Asmara ( April 1 ) and the port of Massawa ( April 8 ). In February, British troops from Kenya infiltrate Italian Somalia ; February 25, they occupy the port of Mogadishu , and then turn north and enter Ethiopia . On March 16, an English landing party landed inBritish Somalia and soon defeats the Italians there. Together with the English troops , Emperor Haile Selassie , deposed by Italians in 1936, arrives in Ethiopia . The British joined the numerous detachments of Ethiopian partisans. On March 17, British and Ethiopian troops occupy Jijiga , on March 29 - Harar , on April 6 - the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa . The Italian colonial empire in East Africa ceases to exist. The remains of Italian troops continue to resist in Ethiopia and Somalia until November 27, 1941.
In March 1941, in a naval battle near the island of Crete, the British inflicted another defeat on the Italian fleet. On March 2, British and Australian troops began landing in Greece. On March 9, Italian troops launched a new offensive against the Greeks, however, in the course of six-day fierce battles, they were completely defeated and by March 26 were forced to withdraw to their original positions.
Having suffered a complete defeat on all fronts, Mussolini was forced to ask Hitler for help. In February 1941, a German expeditionary force under the command of General Rommel arrives in Libya . On March 31, 1941, Italian-German troops went on the offensive, repelled the Cyrenaica from the British and went to the borders of Egypt, after which the front in North Africa stabilized until November 1941.
Changes in the composition of warring coalitions
Gradually, the US government begins to revise its foreign policy course . It is increasingly supporting Britain, becoming its βnon-combatant allyβ (see Atlantic Charter ). In May 1940, the US Congress approved a sum of $ 3 billion for the needs of the army and navy, and in the summer - $ 6.5 billion, including $ 4 billion for the construction of a βfleet of two oceans. Arms and equipment supplies for the UK are increasing. On September 2, 1940, the United States handed over 50 destroyers to Great Britain in exchange for renting 8 military bases in the British colonies in the Western Hemisphere. According to adopted by the US Congress on March 11The 1941 law on the transfer of military materials to warring countries on loan or for rent (see Lend-Lease ), the UK allocated $ 7 billion. Later, Lend-Lease applies to China , Greece and Yugoslavia . The North Atlantic has been declared a βpatrol zoneβ of the US Navy, which is simultaneously embarking on escorting merchant ships bound for the UK.
In negotiations on October 12 and 13, 1940, German diplomats proposed that the USSR join the Axis Pact in the hope that the Union would take part in the creation of the powerful Continental Bloc (the German Gewaltigen Kontinentalblock ) and consider India and Iran to be its area of ββinterest and control in Asia. , which ultimately leads to the surrender of England and its allies.
The German General Staff, even before the negotiations, on July 13 a plan of military operations against the USSR was drawn up. Then it became clear to Hitler that England was seriously counting on help from the USSR. Also, by November 12, Hitler signed a directive ( German: Weisung Nr . 18 ), according to which all previously given oral orders on preparing for war should be carried out regardless of the results of negotiations [57] .
During a series of meetings and confidential conversations with Hitler and Ribbentrop, Molotov stated that βthe Soviet Union can take part in the broad agreement of the four powers, but only as a partner, and not as an objectβ [58] .
In addition to these specific requirements, it was suggested that Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Yugoslavia represent the area of ββstate interests of the Soviet Union. This categorically did not suit Hitler, and the negotiations ended on November 14 with nothing, and in a "cold atmosphere."
On November 25, Stalin softened the requirements, indicating that the condition for the USSR to enter into the pact is consent to declare Finland, Bulgaria, and the right to establish strongholds in Turkey as a zone of interests of the USSR. But the German side did not answer at all.
After that, Hitler approves the plan of attack on the USSR. For these purposes, Germany begins to look for allies in Eastern Europe . On November 20, Hungary joins the Triple Alliance , on November 23 - Romania , on November 24 - Slovakia , in 1941 - Bulgaria , Finland and Spain . On March 25, 1941, Yugoslavia joined the pact , however, on March 27, a military coup takes place in Belgrade , and the government of Simovic comes to powerwho declares the king of young Peter II and proclaims the neutrality of Yugoslavia. On April 5, Yugoslavia concludes a treaty of friendship and non-aggression with the USSR . In view of the undesirable development of events for Germany, Hitler decides to conduct a military operation against Yugoslavia and help Italian troops in Greece.
Battles in the Balkans and the Middle East
April 6, 1941 , after a massive bombardment of large cities, railway junctions and airfields, Germany and Hungary invade Yugoslavia. At the same time, Italian troops, with the support of the Germans, conduct another offensive in Greece. By April 8, the armed forces of Yugoslavia were divided into several parts and actually ceased to exist as a whole. April 9 , German troops passing through Yugoslav territory, go to Greece and capture of Thessaloniki , forcing the surrender of Greek . On April 10, the Germans invade Zagreb . April 11 Croatian Nazi leader Ante Pavelic proclaims the independence of Croatia and urges the Croats to leave the ranks of the Yugoslav army, which further undermines its combat effectiveness. On April 13, the Germans invade Belgrade . On April 15, the Yugoslav government flees the country. On April 16, German troops enter Sarajevo . On April 16, Italians occupy Bar and the island of Krk , and on April 17 - Dubrovnik . On the same day, the Yugoslav army surrenders, and 344 thousand of its soldiers and officers are captured.
After the defeat of Yugoslavia, the Germans and Italians threw all their forces into Greece. On April 20, the Epirus Army capitulates . An attempt by the Anglo-Australian command to create a defensive line near Thermopylae to close the Wehrmacht to the path to central Greece was unsuccessful, and on April 20 the command of the allied forces decided to evacuate their forces. April 21 was taken by Ioannina . On April 23, Tsolakoglu signs the act of general surrender of the Greek armed forces. On April 24, King George II flees with the government to Crete . On the same day, the Germans invade the islands of Lemnos., Thasos and Samothrace . Athens was captured on April 27th .
On May 20, the Germans land on Crete , which is in the hands of the British. Although the British fleet thwarts the Germans' attempt to deliver reinforcements by sea, on May 21, paratroopers capture the airfield in Maleme and provide airborne reinforcements. Despite the stubborn defense, British troops were forced to leave Crete by May 31 . By June 2, the island is fully occupied. But in view of the heavy losses of the German paratroopers, Hitler abandons plans for further landing operations to seize Cyprus and the Suez Canal .
As a result of the invasion, Yugoslavia is divided into parts. Germany annexes Northern Slovenia , Hungary - Western Vojvodina , Bulgaria - Vardar Macedonia , Italy - Southern Slovenia, part of the Dalmatian coast , Montenegro and Kosovo . Croatia was declared an independent state under the Italo-German protectorate. In Serbia , the collaborative government of Nedic was created .
After the defeat of Greece, Bulgaria annexed Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace; the rest of the country is divided into Italian (western) and Germanic (eastern) occupation zones.
On April 1, 1941, as a result of the coup in Iraq, power was seized by the pro-German nationalist group Rashid Ali-Gailani . By agreement with the Vichy regime, Germany on May 12 begins transporting military equipment to Iraq via Syria , mandated by France. But the Germans, busy preparing for war with the USSR, are not able to provide significant assistance to Iraqi nationalists. British troops invade Iraq and overthrow the government of Ali Gailani. On June 8, the British, together with units of the β Fighting France, β invade Syria and Lebanon, and by mid-July forced the Vichy troops to surrender.
According to the leadership of Great Britain and the USSR, in 1941 there was a threat of involving Germany on the side of Germany as an active ally of Iran. Therefore, from August 25, 1941 to September 17, 1941, a joint Anglo-Soviet operation to occupy Iran was carried out . Its purpose was to protect Iranian oil fields from possible capture by German troops and to protect the transport corridor ( Trans-Iranian route), according to which the Allies carried out Lend-Lease deliveries for the Soviet Union. During the operation, the Allied forces invaded Iran and established their control over Iranβs railways and oil fields. At the same time, British troops occupied southern Iran. Soviet troops occupied northern Iran.
Asia
In China, the Japanese seized the southeastern part of the country from 1939 to 1941 . China, due to the difficult domestic political situation in the country, could not provide a serious rebuff. After the surrender of France, the administration of French Indochina recognized the Vichy government. Thailand , taking advantage of the weakening of France, made territorial claims on part of French Indochina. In October 1940, Thai troops invaded French Indochina. Thailand managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Vichy army. May 9, 1941 under pressure from Japan Vichy regimewas forced to sign a peace treaty, according to which Laos and part of Cambodia withdrew to Thailand . After the loss of a number of colonies in Africa by the Vichy regime, there was also the threat of the capture of Indochina by the British and De Gaulle . In order to prevent this, in June 1941 the fascist government agreed to send Japanese troops to the colony.
The second period of the war (June 1941 - November 1942)
Background to the invasion of the USSR
The tragic beginning of the war for the Red Army is one of the most encrypted pages of our history. We can already talk about generations of historians trying to find out the true causes of our failures at the beginning of the war, but this problem has not yet been resolved.
- P. N. Bobylev , Ph.D. (Hist.), Assistant professor, leading researcher at the Institute of Military History of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation [59] .
In June 1940, Hitler ordered the preparation of an attack on the USSR to begin, and on July 22 the OKH began developing an attack plan, code-named Operation Barbarossa . On July 31, 1940, at a meeting with the high military command at Berghof, Hitler declared :
[...] The hope of England is Russia and America. If the hope of Russia falls away, America will fall away, for the fall of Russia will unpleasantly strengthen the importance of Japan in East Asia, Russia is the East Asian sword of England and America against Japan. [...]
Russia is that factor on which England most of all puts. Something like that happened in London! The English were already completely down *, and now they rose again. From listening to conversations it is clear that Russia is unpleasantly struck by the rapid development of events in Western Europe. [...]
But if Russia is broken, Englandβs last hope will fade. The lord of Europe and the Balkans will then be Germany.
Solution: in the course of this clash with Russia, it must be finished. In the spring of the 41st. [...]
* Down (Eng.)- F. Halder . "The military diary." Summary of Hitler's speech on July 31, 1940 [60] .
November 29 - December 7, 1940 the general headquarters of the Wehrmacht ground forces conducted an operational-strategic map game according to the plan of aggression against the USSR. On December 18, 1940, the Barbarossa plan was approved by Supreme Commander-in-Chief Directive No. 21 . The approximate date for completing military preparations is May 15, 1941. Since the end of 1940, a gradual transfer of German troops to the borders of the USSR began, the intensity of which increased sharply after May 22. The German command tried to create the impression that it was a distraction and βthe main task for the summer period is the operation to invade the islands, and measures against the East are only defensive in nature and their scope depends only on Russian threats and military preparations β [61] . A misinformation campaign began against Soviet intelligence, which received numerous conflicting messages about the dates (end of April - beginning of May, April 15, May 15 - beginning of June, May 14, end of May, May 20, early June, etc.) and war conditions ( after and before the start of the war with England, various requirements for the USSR before the war, etc.).
At the end of December 1940 (announced at the end of September 1940), the largest meeting of the red leadership of the Red Army is secretly held in Moscow with emphasis on the nature of the offensive operations, and two operational and strategic games are played on maps under the general name βOffensive Front Operation with UR Breakthroughβ " [62] . The materials of the meeting were kept secret until 1990 , and the course of the games and the balance of power were not disclosed or were distorted to the exact opposite [63] [64] [65] [66] . In fact, the games examined the actions of a large strike group of Soviet troops from the state border of the USSR in the direction of (respectively) Poland -East Prussia and Hungary - Romania . The USSR, on the instructions of the games, was the defending side, but the course of the games itself began with the advance of the Red Army, and in the second game, the army of the USSR began the offensive from positions located 90-180 km west of the border [67] . Strategic planning and development of defense operations in the Red Army from the autumn of 1940 to the very outbreak of the war were not carried out [59] .
On March 8, 1941, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks decided to hold training camps at the end of May - beginning of June of the same year, according to which 975,870 military men were to be called up for a period of 30 to 90 days (the vast majority were called up for a period of 45 days and more). Some historians consider it as an element of covert mobilization in a difficult political situation - because of them infantry divisions in the border and inland districts received 1900 - 6000people, and the number of about 20 divisions almost reached the wartime schedule. Other historians do not associate the fees with the political situation and explain their retraining of the composition "in the spirit of modern requirements." Historians M.I. Meltiukhov , V. A. Nevezhin , and others find signs of the preparation of the USSR for an attack on Germany in collections.
On March 27, a revolution takes place in Yugoslavia and anti-German forces come to power. Hitler decides to conduct an operation against Yugoslavia and help Italian troops in Greece , postponing the spring attack on the USSR in June 1941.
On June 10, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Ground Forces, Field Marshal Walter von Brauchitsch, issues an order on the start date of the war against the USSR on June 22.
On June 13, directives were sent to the western districts (β To increase combat readiness ... β) on the beginning of the advancement of units of the first and second echelons to the border, at night and under the guise of exercises. On the night of June 13-14 (Friday-Saturday) in the western territories of the USSR, an operation begins to evict the "socially alien element" inland. In total, about 100 thousand people were deported. June 14 leaves a message Tass that the war with Germany and there is no reason that the rumors that the Soviet Union was preparing for war with Germany are false and provocative. Simultaneously with the TASS message, a massive covert transfer of Soviet troops from the so-called second strategic echelon beginsto the western borders of the USSR. On June 18, an order was issued to bring into operational readiness No. 1 some parts of the western districts. On June 21 , after receiving some information about tomorrowβs attack, Directive No. 1 was sent to the troops at 23:30 , containing the probable date of the German attack and orders to be in combat readiness and at the same time βnot to succumb to any provocative actionsβ.
Some sources ( Meltiukhov ) consider the movement of Soviet troops to the border not as a defensive measure, but as preparing for an attack on Germany, naming the various dates of the attack: July 1941, 1942.
Invasion of the USSR
On an early Sunday morning, June 22, 1941, Germany declared war on the Soviet Union. Between 2:30 a.m. and 3:00 a.m. on June 22, 1941 (time according to the late memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov [68] [69] ), or at 5:30 (as stated in Molotovβs radio broadcast on the same day [70] ), German Ambassador to the USSR V. Schulenburg appeared to the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V. M. Molotovand made a statement about the reasons for the attack on the USSR, the content of which was that the Soviet government pursued a subversive policy in Germany and in the countries it occupied, pursued a foreign policy directed against Germany, and "concentrated all its troops on the German border in full combat readiness ". The statement ended with the following words: βThe FΓΌhrer therefore ordered the German armed forces to counter this threat with all means at their disposalβ [70] . Together with the note, he handed over a set of documents identical to those given by Ribbentrop to Dekanozov. On the same day, Italy and Romania declared war on the USSR ; Slovakia - June 23 . StartedThe Great Patriotic War .
German troops deliver a powerful surprise strike across the western Soviet border with three army groups: the North , the Center , and the South . On the first day, a significant part of Soviet ammunition, fuel and military equipment was destroyed or captured; destroyed about 1,200 aircraft. 23 - June 25 , Soviet fronts trying to counterattack, but fail.
By the end of the first decade of July, German troops invaded Latvia , Lithuania , Belarus , a significant part of Ukraine , Moldova and Estonia . The main forces of the Soviet Western Front were defeated in the Bialystok-Minsk battle .
The Soviet Northwest Front was defeated in a border battle and was driven back. However, the Soviet counterattack at Soltsy 14 - July 18 halted the German advance on Leningrad almost 3 weeks.
The implementation of Hitlerβs Barbarossa plan began in the northern Baltic on the evening of June 21 , when 7 German mine loaders based in Finnish ports exposed two minefields in the Gulf of Finland [71] . These minefields were ultimately able to lock up the Soviet Baltic fleet in the eastern Gulf of Finland. Later that evening, German bombers, flying along the Gulf of Finland, mined the harbor of Leningrad ( Kronstadt raid ) and the Neva . On the way back, the aircraft refueled at the Finnish airfield in Utti [72] .
On the morning of the same day, German troops stationed in Norway occupied Petsamo . The concentration of German troops began on the border with the USSR [72] . At the beginning of the war, Finland did not allow German troops to launch a ground attack from its territory, and German units in the Petsamo and Salla regions were forced to refrain from crossing the border. There were only occasional skirmishes between the Soviet and Finnish border guards.
At 4:30 on June 22 Finnish troops under the guise of fighting ships, crossed the border of territorial waters, began landing on the Aland Islands , Which were the demilitarized zone . At around 6 a.m., Soviet bombers appeared in the Aland Islands area and tried to bombard Finnish battleships VΓ€inΓ€mΓΆinen and Ilmarinen , a gunboat , also Fort Alskar [73] . On the same day, three Finnish submarinesset mines off the Estonian coast, and their commanders had permission to attack Soviet ships βin the event of favorable conditions for an attackβ [72] .
On June 26, Finland declares war on the USSR , Finnish troops go on the counteroffensive and soon regain the Karelian Isthmus , previously captured by the Soviet Union, without crossing the old historical Russian-Finnish border on the Karelian Isthmus (the old border was crossed to a great depth to the north of Lake Ladoga ). On June 29, German-Finnish troops launched an offensive in the Arctic , but advance into Soviet territory was stopped.
In Ukraine, the Soviet Southwestern Front was also defeated and was thrown back from the border, but the desperate counterattack of the Soviet mechanized corps in the direction of Dubno - Lutsk - Brody still did not allow German troops to make a swift deep breakthrough and capture Kiev .
In a new offensive in the central sector of the front, the attempted July 10 , a group of armies "Center" is already July 16 capture Smolensk and surrounds the core strength of the reconstituted Soviet Western Front . In the wake of this success, and also taking into account the need to support the attack on Leningrad and Kiev, on July 19, Hitler, despite objections from the army command , gives the order to transfer the direction of the main attack from the Moscow direction to the south (Kiev, Donbass ) and north (Leningrad) [74]. In accordance with this decision, tank groups advancing to Moscow were withdrawn from the Center group and directed south (2nd tank group) and north (3rd tank group). The attack on Moscow should continue with the infantry divisions of Army Group Center, but the battle in the Smolensk region continued, and on July 30 Army Group Center received orders to go on the defensive. Thus, the attack on Moscow was postponed.
8 - 9 August , Army Group "North" resumed the offensive on Leningrad . The front of the Soviet troops is dissected, they are forced to withdraw in diverging directions to Tallinn and Leningrad . The defense of Tallinn fettered part of the German forces, but on August 28, Soviet troops were forced to begin the evacuation. September 8 , with the capture of Shlisselburg , German troops take Leningrad into the ring .
On September 4, General Jodl , the chief of the main headquarters of the German armed forces, receives from Marshal Mannerheim a categorical refusal to attack Leningrad [75] .
On September 6, Hitler, by his order ( Weisung Nr. 35 ), stopped the advance of the Sever group of forces on Leningrad and ordered Field Marshal Leeb to give up all tanks and a significant number of troops in order to βstart the attack on Moscowβ as soon as possible [76] [77 ] [77 ] ] . Having abandoned the assault on Leningrad , Army Group North launched an offensive in the Tikhvin direction on October 16 , intending to unite with Finnish troops east of Leningrad. However, the counterattack of Soviet troops near Tikhvin frees the city and stops the enemy.
In Ukraine, in early August, troops of Army Group South cut off from the Dnieper and surrounded two Soviet armies near Uman . However, they again failed to capture Kiev . Only after the troops of the southern flank of Army Group Center (2nd Army and 2nd Tank Group) turned south did the position of the Soviet South-Western Front deteriorate sharply. The German 2nd Panzer Group , having repelled the counterattack of the Bryansk Front , crossed the Desna and on September 15 joined the 1st Panzer Group, advancing from the Kremenchug bridgehead. As a result of the battle for Kievthe Soviet Southwestern Front was completely defeated .
The catastrophe near Kiev opened the way for the Germans to the south. On October 5, the 1st Panzer Group reached the Sea of ββAzov near Melitopol , cutting off the troops of the Southern Front . In October 1941, German troops captured almost the entire Crimea , except for Sevastopol .
The defeat in the south opened the way for the Germans to Donbass and Rostov . Kharkov fell on October 24, and the main cities of Donbass were occupied by the end of October. On October 17, Taganrog fell . On November 21, the 1st Panzer Army entered Rostov-on-Don , reaching the goals of the Barbarossa plan in the south. However, on November 29, Soviet troops knocked out the Germans from Rostov , and until the summer of 1942 the front line in the south was established at the turn of the river. Mius .
September 30, 1941 German troops begin an attack on Moscow . As a result of deep breakthroughs of German tank formations, the main forces of the Soviet Western , Reserve and Bryansk Front were encircled in the region of Vyazma and Bryansk. In total, more than 660 thousand people were captured.
The remains of the Western and Reserve Fronts on October 10 are united into a single Western Front under the command of Army General G.K. Zhukov .
On November 15 - 18, German troops, with the end of the slaughter, resumed their attack on Moscow, but by December they had stopped in all directions.
On December 1, General Field Marshal von Bock , the commander of the Center forces, reports that the troops are exhausted and are not able to continue the offensive [76] .
On December 5, 1941, the Kalinin , Western and South-Western fronts went on the counterattack. The successful advance of Soviet troops forces the enemy to go on the defensive along the entire front line. In December, as a result of the offensive, the troops of the Western Front liberated Yakhroma , Klin , Volokolamsk , Kaluga ; Kalinin Front frees Kalinin ; Southwestern Front - Efremov and Yelets . As a result, by the beginning of 1942 the Germans were driven back 100-250 km to the west. The defeat near Moscow was the first major defeat of the Wehrmacht in this war.
The success of the Soviet troops near Moscow prompted the Soviet command to launch a large-scale offensive. On January 8, 1942, the forces of the Kalinin , Western and North-Western Front went on the offensive against the German Army Group Center . They fail to complete the task, and after several attempts, by mid-April, they have to stop the offensive, having suffered heavy losses. The Germans retain the Rzhev-Vyazemsky bridgehead, which is a danger to Moscow. Attempts by Volkhovsky and Leningradsky The fronts to unlock Leningrad were also unsuccessful and led to the encirclement in March 1942 of part of the forces of the Volkhov Front.
Japanese offensive in the Pacific
December 7, 1941, Japan strikes at the American naval base Pearl Harbor . During the attack, which involved 441 aircraft, based on six Japanese aircraft carriers , 8 battleships , 6 cruisers and more than 300 US aircraft were sunk and seriously damaged . Thus, in one day, most of the battleships of the US Pacific Fleet were destroyed . However, the fleetβs main force at that time β the aircraft carrierβs connection β was absent at the base.
In addition to the United States , Britain , the Netherlands (emigration government), Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Union of South Africa , Cuba , Costa Rica , the Dominican Republic , El Salvador , Honduras and Venezuela declare war on Japan the next day . December 11 Germany and Italy , and December 13 - Romania , Hungary and Bulgaria declare war on the US.
On December 8, the Japanese block the British military base in Hong Kong and begin the invasion of Thailand , British Malaya and the American Philippines . The British squadron that came to intercept is subjected to air strikes, and two battleships - the British striking force in this region of the Pacific Ocean - are sinking.
After a short resistance, Thailand agrees to a military alliance with Japan and declares war on the United States and Great Britain . Japanese aircraft from the territory of Thailand begins the bombing of Burma .
On December 10, the Japanese capture the American base on the island of Guam , December 23 - on the island of Wake , December 25, Hong Kong fell . On December 8, the Japanese break through the British defenses in Malaya and, swiftly advancing, push the British troops back to Singapore . Singapore, which the British had previously considered an βimpregnable fortress,β fell on February 15, 1942 , after a 6-day siege. About 70 thousand British and Australian soldiers are captured.
In the Philippines, in late December 1941, the Japanese invade the islands of Mindanao and Luzon . The remnants of American troops manage to gain a foothold on the Bataan Peninsula and Correchidor Island .
On January 11, 1942, Japanese troops invaded the Dutch East Indies and soon captured the islands of Borneo and Celebes . On January 28, the Japanese fleet defeats the Anglo-Dutch squadron in the Java Sea . The Allies are trying to create a powerful defense on the island of Java , but by March 2 they will surrender.
On January 23, 1942, the Japanese capture the Bismarck archipelago , including the island of New Britain , and then take control of the northwestern part of the Solomon Islands , in February - the Gilbert Islands , and in early March invade New Guinea .
March 8 , advancing in Burma, the Japanese capture Rangoon , at the end of April - Mandalay , and by May take control of almost all of Burma, defeating the British and Chinese forces and cutting off southern China from India . However, the beginning of the rainy season and lack of strength do not allow the Japanese to build on their success and invade India.
May 6 capitulates the last group of American and Philippine troops in the Philippines. By the end of May 1942, Japan at the cost of minor losses manages to establish control over Southeast Asia and Northwest Oceania . American, British, Dutch and Australian forces are crushingly defeated, having lost all their main forces in this region.
The second stage of the battle for the Atlantic
Since the summer of 1941, the main objective of the actions of the German and Italian fleets in the Atlantic has been the destruction of merchant ships in order to impede the delivery of weapons, strategic raw materials and food to the UK . The German and Italian command mainly uses submarines in the Atlantic, which operate on communications linking Great Britain with North America , the African colonies, the Union of South Africa , Australia , India and the USSR .
From the end of August 1941, in accordance with the agreement of the governments of Great Britain and the USSR, mutual military deliveries begin through the Soviet northern ports, after which a significant part of German submarines begins to operate in the North Atlantic. In the fall of 1941, even before the US entered the war, German submarines attacked American ships. In response, the US Congress on November 13, 1941 adopted two amendments to the Law on Neutrality, according to which the ban on the entry of American ships into the war zones is lifted and it is allowed to arm merchant ships.
With the strengthening of anti-submarine defense in communications in July - November, the losses of the merchant fleet of Great Britain, its allies and neutral countries are significantly reduced. In the second half of 1941 they amount to 172.1 thousand gross tons , which is 2.8 times less than in the first half of the year.
However, the German fleet soon seized the initiative for a short time. After the US entered the war, a significant part of German submarines begins to operate in the coastal waters of the Atlantic coast of America . In the first half of 1942, the loss of Anglo-American ships in the Atlantic increased again. But the improvement of anti-submarine defense methods allows the Anglo-American command from the summer of 1942 to improve the situation on the Atlantic sea lanes, deliver a series of retaliatory attacks to the German submarine fleet and push it into the central regions of the Atlantic.
German submarines operate almost throughout the Atlantic: off the coast of Africa , South America , in the Caribbean . August 22, 1942, after the Germans sank a number of Brazilian ships, Brazil declares war on Germany . After that, fearing an undesirable reaction from other countries in South America, German submarines reduce their activity in this region.
In general, despite a number of successes, Germany was never able to disrupt Anglo-American shipping. In addition, in March 1942, British aviation began strategic bombing of important economic centers and cities in Germany, allied and occupied countries.
Mediterranean African Campaigns
In the summer of 1941, all German aircraft operating in the Mediterranean were transferred to the Soviet-German front. This facilitates the tasks of the British, who, taking advantage of the passivity of the Italian fleet, seize the initiative in the Mediterranean Sea. By mid- 1942, the British, despite a series of setbacks, completely violated the maritime communications between Italy and the Italian troops in Libya and Egypt .
By the summer of 1941, the position of the British forces in North Africa was greatly improved . This is greatly facilitated by the complete defeat of the Italians in Ethiopia . The British command now has the opportunity to transfer forces from East Africa to North.
Using the favorable situation, the British troops went on the offensive on November 18, 1941 . On November 24, the Germans are trying to strike a counterattack, but it ends in failure. The British will release Tobruk and, developing the offensive, occupy El-Ghazal , Derna and Benghazi . By January, the British again took control of Cyrenaica , but their troops were dispersed over a vast expanse, which Rommel took advantage of . On January 21, Italian-German troops go on the offensive, break through the English defenses and rush to the northeast. At El-Ghazal however, they are stopped, and the front again stabilizes for 4 months.
May 26, 1942 Germany and Italy resume the offensive in Libya . The British suffer heavy losses and are again forced to retreat. June 21 surrenders to the English garrison in Tobruk . The Italo-German troops continue to advance successfully and on July 1 they approach the English defensive line near El Alamein 60 km from Alexandria , where they are forced to stop due to heavy losses. In August, the British command in North Africa was replaced. August 30, Italo-German troops again try to break through the English defenses near Al Khalfahowever, they fail completely, which becomes the turning point of the entire campaign.
On October 23, 1942, the British launched an offensive, broke through the enemyβs defenses, and by the end of November liberated the entire territory of Egypt , entered Libya and occupied Cyrenaica .
Meanwhile, fighting continues in Africa for the French colony of Madagascar , which was under Vichy rule. The reason for conducting military operations against the colony of the former ally for Great Britain was the potential threat of German submarines using Madagascar as a base for operations in the Indian Ocean . On May 5, 1942, British and South African troops landed on the island. French troops offer stubborn resistance, but by November they are forced to capitulate. Madagascar passes under the control of " Free France ".
On November 8, 1942, the US-English landing party begins landing in French North Africa . The next day, the Commander-in-Chief of the Vichy forces , Francois Darlan, negotiates an alliance and ceasefire with the Americans and assumes full power in French North Africa. In response, the Germans, with the consent of the Vichy government, occupy the southern part of France and begin to transfer troops to Tunisia . November 13, the Allied forces begin an offensive in Tunisia from Algeria , on the same day the British took Tobruk. The allies reached West Tunisia and by November 17 clashed with German troops, which by then had managed to occupy the eastern part of Tunisia. By November 30, due to bad weather, the front line had stabilized until February 1943.
The creation of the anti-Hitler coalition
Immediately after the invasion of Germany in the Soviet Union representatives of the United Kingdom and the United States expressed their support for the Soviet Union and began to give him economic aid . On January 1, 1942, in Washington, representatives of the Big Four (USSR, USA, Great Britain and China ) signed the United Nations Declaration, thereby laying the foundation for the Anti-Hitler Coalition [78] . Later, another 22 countries joined it.
Eastern Front: Second German large-scale offensive
Both the Soviet and German sides expected from the summer of 1942 the implementation of their offensive plans. Hitler aimed the main efforts of the Wehrmacht on the southern sector of the front, pursuing primarily economic goals.
The strategic plan of the Soviet command for 1942 was to " consistently carry out a number of strategic operations in different directions, in order to force the enemy to disperse its reserves, to prevent it from creating a strong group to repulse the offensive in any of the points " [79] . The main efforts of the Red Army, according to the plans of the Supreme High Command , were supposed to focus on the central sector of the Soviet-German front. It was also planned to carry out an offensive near Kharkov, in the Crimea and break through the blockade of Leningrad.
However, the offensive undertaken by the Soviet troops in May 1942 near Kharkov ended in failure. German troops managed to fend off the blow, defeated the Soviet troops and themselves went on the offensive. The Soviet troops also suffered a crushing defeat in the Crimea . For 9 months, Soviet sailors held Sevastopol, and by July 4, 1942, the remnants of Soviet troops were evacuated to Novorossiysk. As a result, the defense of Soviet troops in the southern sector was weakened. Taking advantage of this, the German command launched a strategic offensive in two directions: to Stalingrad and the Caucasus .
After fierce battles near Voronezh and in the Donbass, German forces of Army Group B managed to break into the great bend of the Don . In mid-July, the Battle of Stalingrad began , in which the Soviet troops, at the cost of heavy losses, managed to forge the enemy's strike force.
Army Group A, advancing in the Caucasus , took Rostov-on-Don on July 23 and continued its attack on the Kuban. On August 12, Krasnodar was taken . However, in battles in the foothills of the Caucasus and near Novorossiysk, Soviet troops managed to stop the enemy.
Meanwhile, in the central sector, the Soviet command launched a major offensive operation to defeat the Rzhev-Sychev group of the enemy (9th Army of Army Group Center ). However, the Rzhev-Sychevskaya operation carried out from July 30 to the end of September was unsuccessful.
Nor was it possible to break through the blockade of Leningrad , although the Soviet offensive forced the German command to abandon the assault on the city.
Pacific Front: Fracture
The third period of the war (November 1942 - June 1944)
Fracture on the Eastern Front
November 19 1942 the year the Red Army moves in a counter-offensive at Stalingrad , where the cost of enormous efforts does the watershed, to take away the strategic initiative in the defeat of the German forces, as a result of which manage to encircle and crush the two German, two Romanian and one Italian army; a total of 330 thousand soldiers were destroyed, about 92 thousand were taken prisoner [80] .
From November 25 to December 20, 1942, the Soviet offensive on the central sector of the Soviet-German front ( Operation Mars ) ended unsuccessfully.
In early 1943, Soviet troops launched a counterattack on the entire front. Kursk and many other cities have been liberated . In February-March, Field Marshal Manstein once again seized the initiative from the Soviet troops and threw them away in some areas of the southern direction, but he was unable to develop success.
In July 1943, the German command for the last time tried to regain the strategic initiative in the battle of Kursk , but it ends in a serious defeat for the German troops. The retreat of German troops along the entire front line begins - they have to leave Oryol , Belgorod , Novorossiysk . Fights for Belarus and Ukraine begin . In the battle for the Dnieper, the Red Army inflicts another defeat on Germany, liberating the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Crimea .
At the end of 1943 - the first half of 1944, the main hostilities take place on the southern sector of the front. The Germans leave the territory of Ukraine. The Red Army in the south goes to the border of 1941 and enters the territory of Romania .
Anglo-American landing in Africa and Italy
On November 8, 1942, a large Anglo-American landing party landed in Morocco . Having broken the weak resistance of the troops controlled by the Vichy government , by the end of November, having covered 900 km, they entered Tunisia , where by this time the Germans had transferred part of their troops from Western Europe .
Meanwhile, the English army went on the offensive in Libya . The Italo-German troops stationed here could not resist El Alamein and, by February 1943, having suffered heavy casualties, retreated to Tunisia . On March 20, the combined Anglo-American forces launched an offensive in the interior of Tunisia . The Italo-German command tried to evacuate its troops to Italy , but by that time the British fleet had completely taken over the Mediterranean and cut off all the escape routes. On May 13, the Italo-German troops surrendered.
On July 10, 1943, the Allies landed in Sicily . The Italian troops located here surrendered almost without a fight, and the German 14th Panzer Corps offered resistance to the allies. On July 22, American troops captured the city of Palermo, and the Germans retreated to the northeast of the island, to the Strait of Messina. By August 17, the German units, having lost all armored vehicles and heavy weapons, crossed to the Apennine Peninsula . Simultaneously with the landing in Sicily, the forces of Free France landed in Corsica ( Operation Vesuvius ). The defeat of the Italian army dramatically worsened the situation in the country. Dissatisfaction with the Mussolini regime grew . KingVictor Emmanuel III decided to arrest Mussolini and put the government of Marshal Badoglio at the head of the country .
In September 1943, Anglo-American troops landed in the south of the Apennine Peninsula. Badoglio signed a truce with them and announced the withdrawal of Italy from the war. However, taking advantage of the confusion of the allies, Hitler freed Mussolini (see Operation Oak ), and the puppet state of the Republic of Salo was created in the north of the country .
In the fall of 1943, US and British forces advanced north. On October 1, Naples was liberated by the Allies and Italian partisans, by November 15, the Allies broke through the German defenses on the Volturno River and forced it. By January 1944, the Allies had reached the German Winter Line fortifications in the area of ββMonte Cassino and the Garigliano River. In January, February and March 1944, they attacked German positions three times in order to break through the enemyβs defenses on the Garigliano river and enter Rome , but because of the worsened weather and heavy rains, they failed and the front line stabilized until May. However, January 22the Allies landed troops in Anzio, south of Rome. In Anzio, the Germans launched an unsuccessful counterattack. By May, the weather had improved, and on May 11 the Allies launched an offensive (the Battle of Monte Cassino ), broke through the defenses of German troops in Monte Cassino, and on May 25 joined with the landing party at Anzio. On June 4, 1944, the Allies liberated Rome .
The strategic bombing of Germany in 1943
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference , it was decided to launch strategic bombing of Germany by joint Anglo-American forces. The targets of the bombing were to be both objects of the military industry and the cities of Germany. The operation received the code name Point Point .
In July-August 1943, a massive bombardment was carried out in Hamburg . The first massive raid on objects deep in Germany was a double raid on Schweinfurt and Regensburg on August 17, 1943. Unguarded bombers were unable to defend themselves against attacks by German fighters, and the losses were significant (about 20%). Such losses were declared unacceptable, and the 8th Air Army suspended air operations over Germany until the arrival of P-51 Mustang fighters , which had a sufficient flight range to fly to Berlin and back.
Guadalcanal. Asia
From August 1942 to February 1943, Japanese and American forces fought for control of the Guadalcanal island as part of the Solomon Islands archipelago . In this battle of exhaustion, the United States ultimately prevails . The need to send reinforcements to Guadalcanal weakens Japanese forces in New Guinea , which contributes to the liberation of the island from Japanese troops, which ends in early 1943.
At the end of 1942 and during 1943, British forces made several unsuccessful counter-offensive attempts in Burma .
In November 1943, the Allies succeeded in capturing the Japanese island of Tarawa .
Conferences on the third period of the war
The rapid development of events on all fronts, especially on the Soviet-German one, required the Allies to clarify and agree on further plans for warfare. This was done at the Tehran Conference in November 1943 .
The fourth period of the war (June 1944 - May 1945)
West front of Germany
On June 6, 1944, after two months of distracting maneuvers , the allied forces of the USA , Great Britain and Canada carry out the largest landing operation in history and land in Normandy .
In August, American and French troops landed in southern France , liberated the cities of Toulon and Marseille . On August 25, the Allies enter Paris and liberate it along with the French Resistance units .
In September, an allied offensive on the territory of Belgium begins . By the end of 1944, the Germans had great difficulty in stabilizing the front line in the west. On December 16, the Germans launched a counterattack in the Ardennes , and the Allied command sent reinforcements from other sectors of the front and reserves to the Ardennes. The Germans were able to advance 100 km into the depths of Belgium , but on December 22, the American 3rd Army of General Patton launched a counterattack, attacking the Germans from the south, and by December 25, 1944, the German offensive choked, and the allies launched a general counterattack. By December 27, the Germans did not hold their captured positions in the Ardennes and began to retreat.The strategic initiative irrevocably passes to the allies. In January 1945, German forces launched local distracting counterattacks in Alsace, which also ended in failure. After that, American and French troops surrounded units of the 19th German army near the city of Colmar in Alsace and defeated them by February 9 ( Colmar Cauldron ). The Allies broke through German fortifications (the Siegfried Line , or West Wall) and launched an invasion of Germany.
In February-March 1945, the Allies during the Meuse-Rhine operation captured the whole of Germany west of the Rhine and crossed the Rhine. The German troops, having suffered heavy defeats in the Ardennes and the Meuse-Rhine operations, retreated to the right bank of the Rhine. In April 1945, the Allies surrounded the German Army Group B in the Ruhr and defeated it by April 17, and the Wehrmacht lost the Ruhr Industrial Area , Germanyβs most important industrial area.
The Allies continued their offensive deep into Germany and on April 25 met with Soviet troops on the Elbe. By May 2, British and Canadian forces (Army Group 21) captured the entire north-west of Germany and reached the borders of Denmark.
After the completion of the Ruhr operation, the liberated American units were transferred to the 6th Army Group on the southern flank to capture the southern regions of Germany and Austria.
On the southern flank, American and French troops, advancing, captured the south of Germany and Austria. Units of the 7th American Army crossed the Alps along the Brenner Pass and on May 4 met with the troops of the 15th group of Allied armies advancing in Northern Italy.
In Italy, the Allied offensive progressed very slowly. Despite all attempts, they did not succeed in breaking the front line and crossing the Po River at the end of 1944 . In April 1945, their offensive resumed, they overcame the German fortifications (" Gothic Line "), and broke into the valley of the Po River.
On April 28, 1945, Italian partisans captured and executed Mussolini . Fully northern Italy was cleared of the Germans only in May 1945.
Strategic bombing of Germany in 1944-1945
When Pointblank's operation was officially completed on April 1, 1944, the Allied Air Force was on its way to gaining air superiority over all of Europe. Although the strategic bombing continued to some extent, the Allied Air Force switched to tactical bombing as part of ensuring the landing in Normandy . Only in mid-September 1944, strategic bombing of Germany again became a priority for the Allied Air Force [81] .
Large-scale round-the-clock bombardments - the US Air Force during the day, the United Kingdom at night - affected many industrial areas of Germany, mainly the Ruhr , followed by attacks directly on cities such as Kassel , Pforzheim , and the often criticized bombing of Dresden .
Soviet offensive
In the summer of 1944, the offensive of the Red Army in Eastern Belarus began. By the fall of the German troops cleared almost all of the previously occupied territory of the USSR: Belarus , Ukraine , the Baltic states . Only in western Latvia did the encircled German forces manage to hold out until the end of the war.
As a result of the Soviet offensive in the north, Finland announced its withdrawal from the war. However, German troops refuse to leave Finland. As a result, former "brothers in arms" are forced to fight against each other. In August, as a result of the offensive of the Red Army, Romania leaves the war , in September - Bulgaria . The Germans begin the evacuation of troops from the territory of Yugoslavia and Greece , where the people take power in their hands.
In February 1945, the Budapest operation was carried out , after which Germany's last European ally - Hungary - was forced to surrender. The offensive begins in Poland , the Red Army occupies East Prussia .
In late April 1945, the Red Army launched an offensive on Berlin. Realizing their complete defeat, Hitler and Goebbels committed suicide. On May 2, after stubborn two-week battles for the German capital, the artillery general Weidling , accompanied by three German generals, crossed the front line and surrendered. An hour later, while at the headquarters of the 8th Guards Army, he wrote an order to surrender Berlin. On the night of May 8 to 9, the German command signed an act of unconditional surrender of all Nazi Germany. Germany is divided into four occupation zones: Soviet, American, British and French.
The fighting after the surrender of Germany
Even after the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, the resistance of certain parts of the German troops continued.
On the night of May 11-12, near the demarcation line near the village of Slivice in the vicinity of Pilsen , the remainder of the mixed SS divisions retreating from Prague led by the head of the SS Office in Bohemia and Moravia, ObergruppenfΓΌhrer SS Karl-Friedrich von PΓΌckler, were destroyed Burghouse. The structure of more than seven thousand Germans was the remnants of the SS divisions Wallenstein and Das Reich .
On May 14β15, the last battle of World War II in Europe took place in Northern Slovenia , during which the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia defeated the remnants of German troops and collaborators.
Pacific theater of operations
In the Pacific, hostilities also developed quite successfully for the Allies. In June 1944, the Americans captured the Mariana Islands . In October 1944, a major battle took place in Leyte Gulf , in which US forces gained a tactical victory. In the land battles, the Japanese army acted more successfully, and they were able to capture all of southern China and unite with their troops, which were operating at that time in Indochina .
Conferences of the fourth period of the war
By the end of the fourth period of the war, the Allied victory was no longer in doubt. However, they had to agree on a post-war organization of the world and, above all, Europe . The discussion of these issues by the heads of the three Allied powers took place in February 1945 in Yalta . The decisions adopted at the Yalta Conference for many years to come determined the course of post-war history.
The fifth period of the war (May 1945 - September 1945)
The end of the war with Japan
After the end of the war in Europe, Japan remained the last adversary of the countries of the anti-fascist coalition . By that time, about 60 countries had declared war on Japan. However, despite the current situation, the Japanese did not intend to capitulate and announced the conduct of the war to a victorious end. In June 1945, the Japanese lost Indonesia , were forced to leave Indochina. July 26, 1945 the United States, Britain and China presented the ultimatum to the Japanese, but it was rejected.
According to the results of the Yalta Conference, the USSR undertook within 3 months to transfer troops from Europe to the Far East and launch a large-scale offensive by August 8, 1945, in return receiving the Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin [82] .
On August 6, on Hiroshima , and three days later, Americans dropped atomic bombs on Nagasaki , and as a result, two cities were almost wiped off the face of the earth. On August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan, and on August 9 launched an offensive and within 2 weeks inflicted a crushing defeat on the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manzhou-go . September 2 at 9:02 Tokyo time (at 4:02 Moscow time) on board the American battleship Missouri an act was signed on unconditional surrender of Japan . The largest war in human history has ended.
The state of war between the USSR and Japan was terminated by the Joint Declaration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan of October 19, 1956. At the same time, a peace treaty between the USSR and Japan was never signed. Japan disputes the belonging of Russia to the southern Kuril Islands - Iturup , Kunashir , Shikotan and the group of Habomai islands .
War Results
The Second World War had a huge impact on the fate of mankind. It was attended by 62 states (80% of the world's population). Military operations were conducted on the territory of 40 states. 110 million people were mobilized into the armed forces. Total casualties reached 60β65 million people, of which 27 million were killed on the fronts, many of them citizens of the USSR. Also, heavy casualties were suffered by China, Germany, Japan and Poland.
Military spending and military losses amounted to $ 4 trillion. Material costs reached 60β70% of the national income of the warring states. Only the industry of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and Germany manufactured 652.7 thousand aircraft (military and transport), 286.7 thousand tanks, self-propelled guns and armored vehicles, over 1 million artillery guns, over 4.8 million machine guns (without Germany) , 53 million rifles, carbines and assault rifles and a huge number of other weapons and equipment. The war was accompanied by tremendous destruction, the destruction of tens of thousands of cities and villages, the innumerable disasters of tens of millions of people.
As a result of the war, the role of Western Europe in global politics has weakened . The main powers in the world were the USSR and the USA. Great Britain and France, despite the victory, were significantly weakened. The war showed the inability of them and other Western European countries to maintain huge colonial empires. In countries of Africa and Asia, the anti-colonial movement intensified. As a result of the war, some countries were able to achieve independence: Ethiopia , Iceland , Syria , Lebanon , Vietnam , Indonesia . In the countries of Eastern Europe occupied by Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. One of the main results of the Second World War was the creation ofThe United Nations based on the Anti-Fascist coalition formed during the war to prevent future world wars.
In some countries, partisan movements that developed during the war tried to continue their activities even after the end of the war. In Greece, the conflict between the communists and the pre-war government escalated into a civil war . Anti-communist armed detachments operated for some time after the end of the war in Western Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Poland. In China, the civil war continued , which lasted there since 1927.
Fascist and Nazi ideologies were declared criminal at the Nuremberg trials and banned. In many Western countries, support for communist parties has grown due to their active participation in the anti-fascist struggle during the war.
Europe was divided into two camps: western capitalist and eastern socialist . The relationship between the two blocks has deteriorated sharply. A few years after the end of the war, the Cold War began .
As a result of the war, the USSR actually returned to its territory the territories annexed by Japan from the Russian Empire at the end of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 following the results of the Portsmouth Peace ( southern Sakhalin and, temporarily, Kvantun with Port Arthur and Dalniy ), as well as previously ceded Japan in 1875 the main group of the Kuril Islands and the southern part of the Kuril Islands assigned to Japan by the Shimod Treaty of 1855 . KΓΆnigsberg as a part of East Prussia also moved to the USSR.
Contribution of various states of the anti-Hitler coalition to the victory over Nazi Germany
Russian historian Valentin Falin put it this way: βDespite the fact that politicians often took diametrically opposed positions with respect to the second front and joint operations, the soldiers honestly performed their duty. It was thanks to the cooperation of the military of the West and the East that the war ended in May 1945, and did not drag on for several years. β
According to British professor Richard Overy , a professor of modern history at King's College and author of a number of works on World War II, after the war, the former Hitler Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop named three main reasons for the defeat of Germany:
- the unexpectedly stubborn Soviet resistance ;
- large-scale deliveries of arms and equipment from the USA ;
- the successes of the Western allies in the struggle for air supremacy .
However, the American political scientist and sociologist Zbigniew Brzezinski is not inclined to exaggerate the role of America in the world war:
It is ironic that the defeat of Nazi Germany raised America's international status, although it did not play a decisive role in the military victory over Hitlerism . The merit of achieving this victory should be recognized by the Stalinist Soviet Union, Hitlerβs odious rival [83] .
70β80% of the losses during the Second World War, the German armed forces suffered on the Soviet front [84] (according to V. M. Falin , this proportion reaches 93% [85] ). On the Eastern Front, in the struggle against the USSR, during the war, German troops lost 507 divisions, 100 divisions of Germanyβs allies were completely defeated [86] .
see also
- Campaigns, battles and battles of the Second World War
Notes
- Comments
- β In the days of the USSR , a lowercase letter was accepted - the Second World War (see, for example: D. E. Rosenthal. Uppercase or lowercase? Dictionary-reference book. 4th ed., Stereotyped. M: Russian language, 1988 , ISBN 5-200-00316-4 ). Currently, capitalization is World War II .
- β Also, Japanese aircraft repeatedly and the continental US territory ; Japan also used fire balloons against the United States .
- Sources
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