,

. Adolf Hitler
1938
2 1934 — 30 1945
	; ( )[. 1]
	; ( )
30 1933 — 30 1945
	(1933—1934)
3- July 29, 1921  - April 30, 1945
Predecessor	Anton Drexler
Successor	position abolished ; Martin Bormann as Minister for Party Affairs
Reichstattalter of Prussia January 30, 1933  - April 30, 1945 from January 30, 1935 and. about. Reichstattgalter was Hermann Goering
Predecessor	position established
Successor	position abolished
Birth	April 20, 1889 , Braunau am Inn , Upper Austria , Austria-Hungary(1889-04-20)
Death	April 30 1945 (56 years old) Fuhrerbunker , Berlin , Germany(1945-04-30)
Burial place	secretly buried on the territory of the NKVD base in Magdeburg , in 1970 was cremated and the ashes scattered over the Elbe
Kind
Birth name
Father	Alois Hitler
Mother	Clara Hitler
Spouse	Eva Brown
Children	missing (official) Jean-Marie Lloret (presumably)
The consignment	German Workers Party (1919-1920) NSDAP (1920-1945)
Education
Relation to religion	controversial ; see Religious Views of Adolf Hitler
Autograph
Awards	German Empire Third Reich Foreign
Military service
Years of service	1914 - 1918 1918 - 1920 1941 - 1945
Affiliation	German Empire Germany Germany
Type of army	infantry
Rank	corporal
Commanded	Wehrmacht
Battles	World War I , World War II

́ ́ (. Adolf Hitler [ˈaːdɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ]; 20 1889, ^[2] ( — --), , - — 30 1945, , , ) — , -, , - (1921—1945)^[3], (1933—1945) (1934—1945) , ( 19 1941) .

. , , , . (, () ) .

Biography

Etymology of a surname

According to the famous German philologist, specialist in onomastics Max Gottschald (1882-1952), the surname “Hitler” ( Hittlaer , Hiedler ) was identical to the surname Hütler (“caretaker”, probably “forester”, Waldhütler ) ^[4] .

Pedigree

Hitler's mother Clara

Hitler's father Alois

Incutus in the Hitler clan ^[5]

Father - Alois Hitler (1837-1903). Mother - Klara Hitler (1860-1907), nee Pölzl.

Alois, being illegitimate , until 1876 bore the name of his mother, Maria Anna Schiklgruber ( German:  Schicklgruber ). Five years after the birth of Alois, Maria Schiklgruber married the miller Johann Georg Giedler ( Hiedler ), who spent his whole life in poverty and did not have his own home. In 1876, three witnesses certified that Gidler, who died in 1857, was the father of Alois, which allowed the latter to change his surname ^[6]. The change in the spelling of the surname to “Hitler” was allegedly caused by a clerical slip when recording in the “Birth Registration Book”. Modern scholars believe that Alois’s probable father is not Gidler, but his brother Johann Nepomuk Guettler, who took Alois to his house and raised him ^{[5] [6] [7]} .

Adolf Hitler himself, contrary to the assertion since the 1920s (and having come from a candidate of historical sciences, associate professor and senior researcher at the Institute of General History of the USSR Academy of Sciences V. D. Kulbakin even in the 3rd edition of TSB ^[8] ), never bore the name Shiklgruber ^{[9] [10]} .

On January 7, 1885, Alois married his relative (granddaughter of Johann Nepomuk Guettler) Clara Pölzl . This was his third marriage. By this time he had a son, Alois, and a daughter, Angela , who later became the mother of Geli Raubal , Hitler’s alleged lover. Due to family ties, Alois had to obtain permission from the Vatican to marry Clara ^{[5] [11]} .

Hitler knew about the incubation in his family and therefore always spoke very briefly and unclear about his parents, although he demanded from others to document his ancestors. Since the end of 1921 he began to constantly overestimate and obscure his origin. He wrote only a few sentences about his father and maternal grandfather. On the contrary, he very often mentioned his mother in conversations. Because of this, he did not tell anyone that he was related (in a straight line from Johann Nepomuk) to the Austrian historian Rudolf Koppensteiner and the Austrian poet Robert Gamerling ^[5] .

The direct ancestors of Adolf, both along the Schicklgruber line and along the Hitler line, were peasants. Only his father made a career and became a government official.

Hitler's attachment to childhood places was only to Leonding , where his parents were , , where his maternal relatives lived, and Linz . He visited them even after coming to power ^[5] .

Childhood

Hitler in infancy. (1889-1890)

The house where A. Hitler was born in 1889. Here the future dictator lived until the age of three. Braunau am Inn , Austria. Photograph of 1934. The house has been preserved to the present.

Adolf Hitler was born in Austria, in the city of Braunau am Inn near the border with Germany, on April 20, 1889, at 18.30 in the U Pomeranza Hotel ^[5] . Two days later he was baptized with the name Adolf. Hitler was very much like a mother. The eyes, the shape of the eyebrows, mouth and ears were exactly like hers. His mother, Clara , who gave birth to him at 29, loved him very much. Before that, she lost three children.

Until 1892, the family lived in Braunau at the Oranzhet Hotel, the most representative suburb house. In addition to Adolf, his half-brother (Alois) and his sister Angela lived in the family. In August 1892, his father was promoted, and the family moved to Passau ^[5] .

On March 24, 1894, brother Edmund was born (1894-1900), and Adolf for some time ceased to be in the center of attention of the family. April 1 father received a new appointment in Linz . But the family remained in Passau for another year, so as not to move with a newborn baby.

In April 1895, the family moved to Linz. On May 1, Adolf, at the age of six, entered a one-year public school in Fischligam near Lambach. And on June 25, my father unexpectedly retired early due to health reasons ^[12] . In July 1895, the family moved to Gaffeld near Lambach- on-Traun, where his father bought a house with a plot.

Adolf studied well at elementary school in Fishlgam and received only excellent grades. In 1939, he visited this school and bought it, and then ordered that a new school building be built nearby ^[5] .

On January 21, 1896, the sister of Adolf Paula was born . He was especially attached to her all his life and always cared for her ^[5] .

In 1896, Hitler entered the second class of the Lambach school of the old Catholic Benedictine monastery, which he attended until the spring of 1898. Here he also received only good grades ^[5] . He sang in the boys' choir and was an assistant priest during the Mass ^[12] . Here he first saw a swastika on the coat of arms of Abbot Hagen . He later ordered the same to be cut out of wood in his office ^[5] .

In the same year, due to the constant nit-picking of his father, his half-brother Alois left the house. After this, Adolf became the central figure of his father's worries and constant pressure, since his father was afraid that Adolf would grow up as an idler as his brother ^[5] .

In November 1897, his father bought a house in the village of Leonding near Linz, where the whole family moved in February 1898 ^[13] . The house was near the cemetery.

Adolf changed school for the third time and went to fourth grade here. He attended the public school in Leonding until September 1900.

On February 2, 1900, brother Edmund died. Adolf remained the only son of Clara Hitler .

Hitler (center) with classmates. 1900 year

It was in Leonding that he developed a critical attitude towards the church under the influence of his father’s statements ^[5] .

In September 1900, Adolf entered the first class of the state real school in Linz. Adolf did not like the change of a rural school to a large and alien real school in the city. He only liked to walk 6 km from home to school ^[5] .

From that time on, Adolf began to learn only what he liked — history, geography, and especially drawing; I didn’t notice everything else. As a result of this attitude to study, he stayed for the second year in the first grade of a real school ^{[5] [14]} .

Youth

When the 13-year-old Adolf was in the second grade of a real school in Linz, on January 3, 1903, his father unexpectedly died. Despite the continuous debate and strained relationship, Adolf still loved his father and sobbed uncontrollably at the tomb ^[5] .

At the request of his mother, he continued to go to school, but finally decided for himself that he would be an artist, not an official, as his father wanted ^[5] . In the spring of 1903 he moved to a school dormitory in Linz. He began to attend classes at school irregularly.

On September 14, 1903, Angela married, and now only Adolf, his sister Paula and his mother's sister Johann Pölzl remained in the house with their mother.

When Adolf was 15 years old and he was finishing the third grade of a real school, on May 22, 1904 his confirmation took place in Linz . During this period he composed the play, wrote poems and short stories, and also composed the libretto for Wagner’s opera according to Wieland’s legend and overture ^[5] .

He went to school with disgust, and most of all he did not like the French language. In the fall of 1904, the second time he passed the exam in this subject, but they made a promise that he would go to another school in the fourth grade ^[5] . Gemer, who at that time taught Adolf French and other subjects, said at a trial of Hitler in 1924: “Hitler was undoubtedly gifted, albeit one-sided. Almost did not know how to control himself, was stubborn, unauthorized, wayward and hot-tempered. I was not diligent. " According to numerous evidence, we can conclude that already in his youth Hitler showed pronounced psychopathic features ^[5] .

Hitler's drawing

In September 1904, Hitler, fulfilling this promise, entered the state real school in Steyr in the fourth grade and studied in it until September 1905 . In Steyr, he lived in the house of the merchant Ignaz Kammerhofer at Grunmarket, 19. Subsequently, this place was renamed Adolf Hitlerplatz ^[5] .

On February 11, 1905, Adolf received a certificate of completion of the fourth grade of a real school. The mark "excellent" there stood only in drawing and physical education; in German, French, mathematics, shorthand - unsatisfactory; in other subjects - satisfactory ^[5] .

On June 21, 1905, the mother sold the house in Leonding and moved with her children to Linz on Humbolt Street 31.

In the fall of 1905, Hitler, at the request of his mother, reluctantly began to attend school in Steyr again and pass the exams again in order to receive a certificate for fourth grade ^[5] .

At this time, he was diagnosed with a serious lung disease - the doctor advised his mother to postpone his studies at school for at least a year and recommended that he never work in the office in the future. Mother took Adolf from school and drove to Spital to relatives.

On January 18, 1907, the mother underwent a complex operation ( breast cancer ). In September, when his mother's health improved, 18-year-old Hitler went to Vienna to take the entrance exam at a general art school, but did not pass the second round of exams. After exams, Hitler managed to get a meeting with the rector, from whom he received advice on architecture: Hitler's drawings testified to his abilities for this art ^[15] .

In November 1907, Hitler returned to Linz and took care of a hopelessly ill mother. December 21, 1907, Clara Hitler died, December 23, Adolf buried her next to his father.

In February 1908, after settling matters related to the inheritance and registering pensions for himself and Sister Paula as orphans, Hitler left for Vienna ^[16] .

A friend of youth, Kubitsek and other comrades of Hitler testify that he was constantly on the knives with everyone and felt hatred for everything that surrounded him. Therefore, his biographer Joachim Fest admits that Hitler's anti-Semitism was a focused form of hatred, which had raged in the dark before and finally found its object in the Jews ^[17] .

In September 1908, Hitler made a second attempt to enter the Vienna Academy of Art , but failed already in the first round. After the failure, Hitler changed his place of residence several times without giving anyone new addresses. Avoid service in the Austrian army. He did not want to serve in the same army as the Czechs and Jews, to fight “for the Hapsburg state”, but at the same time he was ready to die for the German Reich ^[5] . He got a job as an "academic artist", and since 1909, and as a writer.

In 1909, Hitler met with Reinhold Ganish ( German  Reinhold Hanisch ), who began to successfully sell his paintings . Until mid- 1910Hitler painted a lot of small format paintings in Vienna. These were mainly copies from postcards and old prints depicting all kinds of historical buildings in Vienna. In addition, he drew all kinds of advertisements. In August 1910, Hitler told the Vienna Police Commissariat that Ganish had withheld part of the proceeds from him and stole one painting. Ganish was sent to prison for seven days. Since that time, Hitler himself sold his paintings. The work brought him such a great income that in May 1911 he refused the monthly pension he had been entitled to as an orphan in favor of Sister Paula. In addition, in the same year he received most of the inheritance of his aunt Johann Pölzl ^[5] .

During this period, Hitler began to intensively engage in self-education. Subsequently, he was free to communicate and read literature and newspapers in the original in French and in English. During the war he liked to watch French and English films without translation. He was very well versed in the armaments of the armies of the world, history, etc. At the same time, he showed interest in politics ^[5] .

In May 1913, Hitler, at the age of 24, moved from Vienna to Munich and settled in the apartment of tailor and shop owner Joseph Popp on Schleißheimer Straße . Here he lived until the outbreak of World War I, working as an artist.

On December 29, 1913, the Austrian police asked the Munich police to establish the address of the hiding Hitler. On January 19, 1914, the Munich Criminal Police brought Hitler to the Austrian Consulate. On February 5, 1914, Hitler went to Salzburg for an examination, where he was declared unfit for military service ^[5] .

Participation in the First World War

On August 1, 1914, the First World War began . Hitler was pleased with the news of the war. He immediately applied to the King of Bavaria, Ludwig III , to obtain permission to serve in the Bavarian army. The very next day he was invited to appear in any Bavarian regiment. He chose the 16th reserve Bavarian regiment ("List Regiment", named after the commander).

On August 16, he was enrolled in the 6th reserve battalion of the 2nd Bavarian Infantry Regiment No. 16 ( Königlich Bayerisches 16. Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment ), consisting of volunteers. On September 1, he was transferred to the 1st company of the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment No. 16. On October 8, he swore allegiance to the King of Bavaria, Ludwig III and Emperor Franz Joseph.

In October 1914 he was sent to the Western Front and on October 29 participated in the battle of Ysera , and from October 30 to November 24 near Iprom .

November 1, 1914 awarded the rank of corporal . On November 9, he was transferred by a messenger to the headquarters of the regiment. From November 25 to December 13 he participated in the positional war in Flanders. December 2, 1914 was awarded the Iron Cross of the 2nd class. From December 14 to 24 he participated in the battle in French Flanders, and from December 25, 1914 to March 9, 1915 - in positional battles in French Flanders.

Hitler among colleagues (sitting on the right), 1914

In 1915 he participated in the battles of Nav-Chapelle , near La Basset and Arras . In 1916, he participated in reconnaissance and demonstration battles of the 6th Army in connection with the Battle of the Somme , as well as in the and directly in the Battle of the Somme. In April 1916 he met Charlotte Lobois . He was wounded in the left thigh by a fragment of a grenade near Le Bargur in the first battle on the Somme ^[5] . He was in the Red Cross infirmary in Belice near Potsdam . Upon leaving the hospital (March 1917) he returned to the regiment in the 2nd company of the 1st reserve battalion.

In 1917, the spring battle of Arras . Participated in battles in Artois , Flanders, in Upper Alsace . September 17, 1917 awarded the 3rd class with swords ^[5] .

In 1918 he participated in the spring offensive in France , in the battles of Evreux and Mondidier . On May 9, 1918 he was awarded a regimental diploma for outstanding courage near Fontane. May 18 receives a badge "For the wound" (black). From May 27 to June 13 - battles near Soissons and Reims . From June 14 to July 14 - positional battles between Oise, Marna and Aene. In the period from July 15 to July 17 - participation in the offensive battles on the Marne and in Champagne, and from July 18 to 29 - participation in the defensive battles in the Soisson, Reims and Marne. Awarded the Iron Cross1st class for delivering reports to artillery positions in especially difficult conditions, which saved the German infantry from shelling with its own artillery ^[5] .

August 21-23, 1918 - participation in the battle of Moncy-Bap.

On August 25, 1918, Hitler received an award for service of the III degree. According to numerous accounts, he was a prudent, very brave and excellent soldier ^[5] . Hitler’s co-worker in the 16th Bavarian Infantry Regiment, Adolf Meyer, cites in his memoirs the testimony of their other colleague, Michael Schleiehuber, who characterized Hitler as “a good soldier and an impeccable comrade.” According to Schleehuber, he “never saw” that Hitler “in any way felt uncomfortable with the service or avoided danger”, as well as did not hear “nothing negative” about him while he was in the division ^[18] .

October 15, 1918 - gas poisoning near La Montaigne as a result of an explosion of a chemical projectile next to it. Eye damage - with this temporary loss of vision. Treatment in the Bavarian field infirmary in Udenard, then in the psychiatric ward of the Prussian rear infirmary in Pasewalk . While being cured in the hospital, I learned about the surrender of Germany and the overthrow of the Kaiser , which was a big shock for him.

Creation of the NSDAP

Hitler considered the defeat in the war of the German Empire and the November Revolution of 1918 to be the result of traitors who stabbed the back of the victorious German army.

In early February 1919, Hitler volunteered to serve as a prisoner of war camp service , located near Traunstein, not far from the Austrian border. About a month later, prisoners of war  - several hundred French and Russian soldiers - were released, and the camp together with its guards was disbanded ^[16] .

On March 7, 1919, Hitler returned to Munich, to the 7th company of the 1st reserve battalion of the 2nd Bavarian infantry regiment.

Hitler with the leadership of the Nazi Party in the late 1920s

At this time, he had not yet decided whether he would be an architect or a politician. In Munich, during the stormy days of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, he was in the ranks of communist groups (since the entire garrison of Munich was enlisted in the Red Army) and even was a deputy, but then claimed that “he did not bind himself with any obligations, he simply watched and took care of his own security . " He, contrary to the position of deputy and documentary photography (allegedly depicting him in a coffin Eisner ), claimed that all the time was in the barracks Max in Munich-Oberwiesenfeld until the day when Freikor von Eppa and the Reichswehr Noske the Communist Soviets were driven out of Munich. He was so sincerely disappointed in communism after the defeat of the Soviet Republic that he was not subjected to reprisals despite the fact that he was a deputy to the Soviet from his unit, which had armed resistance to the Freikor and the Reichswehr (and according to some reports, it was he who led this resistance). ^[19] At the same time, he handed over his works to the eminent artist Max Zeper for evaluation . He handed over the paintings to the conclusion of Ferdinand Steger , who stated: “... absolutely outstanding talent” ^[5] .

On April 27, 1919, as indicated in Hitler’s official biography, he encountered a detachment of Red Guards on Munich Street who intended to arrest him for “anti-Soviet” activities, but, “using his carbine,” Hitler escaped arrest ^[20] .

From June 5 to 12, 1919, his superiors sent him to agitator training courses, which were to conduct explanatory talks against the Bolsheviks among soldiers returning from the front. Among lecturers, far-right views prevailed, among other lectures were given by Gottfried Feder , future economic theorist of the NSDAP ^[21] .

During one of the discussions, Hitler made a very strong impression with his anti-Semitic monologue on the head of the campaign department of the 4th Bavarian Reichswehr Command , and he invited him to take on political functions throughout the army. A few days later he was appointed an education officer (trustee). Hitler turned out to be a bright and temperamental speaker and attracted the attention of listeners ^[5] .

Decisive in Hitler's life was the moment of his unwavering recognition by the supporters of anti-Semitism ^[5] . In the period from 1919 to 1921, Hitler intensively read books from the library of Friedrich Cohn. This library was clearly of anti-Semitic content, which left a deep mark on Hitler’s beliefs ^[5] .

September 12, 1919 Adolf Hitler, on the instructions of the military, came to the Sternekerbrau beer hall at a meeting of the German Workers' Party (DAP)  - founded in early 1919 by locksmith Anton Drexler and numbering about 40 people. During the debate, Hitler, speaking from a pan-German position, won a landslide victory over a supporter of Bavarian independence. The performance made a great impression on Drexler and he invited Hitler to join the party. After some thought, Hitler decided to accept the proposal and at the end of September 1919, having left the army, he became a member of the DAP ^{[22] [Note. 2]}. Hitler immediately made himself responsible for party propaganda and soon began to determine the activities of the entire party ^[23] .

The NSDAP meeting in Munich

On February 24, 1920, Hitler organized the first of many of the party’s great public events in the Hofbräuhaus beer hall . During his speech, he proclaimed twenty-five points drawn up by him, Drexler, and Feder , which became the party's program. “Twenty-five points” combined pan-Germanism , demands for the abolition of the Treaty of Versailles , anti-Semitism , demands for socialist transformations and strong central authority ^[24] . On the same day, at the suggestion of Hitler, the party was renamed the NSDAP ( German:  Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei  -German National Socialist Workers Party ) ^{[Note. 3]} .

In July 1921, in the leadership of the NSDAP ^{[Note. 4]} there was a conflict: Hitler, who wanted dictatorial powers in the party, was outraged by the negotiations with other groups that took place while Hitler was in Berlin, without his participation. On July 11, he announced his withdrawal from the NSDAP. Since Hitler was the most active public politician and the most successful party speaker at that time, other leaders were forced to ask him to return. Hitler returned to the party and on July 29 was elected its chairman with unlimited power. Drexler was left the post of honorary chairman without real authority, but his role in the NSDAP has since fallen sharply ^{[16] [25]} .

For the failure of the speech of the Bavarian separatist politician Otto Ballerstedt ) Hitler was sentenced to three months in prison, but served only a month in Stadelheim prison in Munich - from June 26 to July 27, 1922. January 27, 1923 he held the first congress of the NSDAP ; 5000 attack aircraft marched across Munich.

Beer putsch

Hitler in the 1920s

By the early 1920s, the NSDAP had become one of the most prominent organizations in Bavaria. Ernst Röhm led the assault squads (German abbreviation SA) . Hitler quickly turned into a political figure, which began to be reckoned with, at least within Bavaria.

In January 1923, a crisis erupted in Germany , the cause of which was the French occupation of the Ruhr . The government, led by non-partisan Chancellor Wilhelm Kuno, called on the Germans for passive resistance, resulting in great economic damage. The new government, headed by Chancellor Gustav Stresemann on September 26, 1923, was forced to accept all the demands of France, and as a result was attacked by both the right and the communists. Anticipating this, Stresemann achieved President Ebert's imposition of a state of emergency in the country from September 26, 1923.

The Conservative Bavarian Cabinet of Ministers announced a state of emergency on September 26 and appointed the right-wing monarchist Gustav von Kara as commissioner of the state of Bavaria, giving it dictatorial powers. The power in Bavaria was concentrated in the hands of the triumvirate: Cara, the commander of the Reichswehr forces in Bavaria, General Otto von Lossova and the Bavarian police chief Hans von Seißer . Kar refused to admit that the state of emergency imposed in Germany by the president was valid against Bavaria and did not comply with a number of orders from Berlin, in particular, to arrest three popular leaders of armed groups and close the NSDAP Völkischer Beobachter .

Hitler was inspired by the example of a campaign against Rome Mussolini , he hoped to repeat something similar by organizing a campaign against Berlin and turned to Kara and Lossov with a proposal to undertake a march to Berlin. Kar, Lossov and Seiser were not interested in carrying out a meaningless action and on November 6 informed the German Struggle Union, in which Hitler was a leading political figure, that they did not intend to get involved in hasty actions and would decide on their actions themselves. Hitler took this as a signal that initiative should be taken into their own hands. He decided to take von Kara hostage and force him to support the campaign.

On November 8, 1923, at about 9 o’clock in the evening, Hitler, at the head of armed stormtroopers, appeared at the Munich beer house Burgerbroikeller , where a rally was held with the participation of Kara, Lossov and Seiser. Going inside, Hitler announced the "overthrow of the government of traitors in Berlin." Then Erich Ludendorff , who supported the coup, was brought to the pub . Soon, however, the Bavarian leaders managed to leave the pub, after which Kar issued a proclamation on the dissolution of the Nazi Party and the assault troops. For their part, attack aircraft under the command of Ryoma occupied the building of the headquarters of the ground forces in the War Ministry; there they, in turn, were surrounded by Reichswehr soldiers.

On the morning of November 9, Hitler and Ludendorff, at the head of a 3,000-strong convoy of stormtroopers and supporters, moved to the Ministry of Defense, but a police detachment blocked their way on Rezidenzstrasse Street. Carrying away the dead and wounded, the Nazis and their supporters left the streets. In the history of Germany, this episode went under the name " beer coup ."

In February - March 1924, the trial of the leaders of the putsch took place. In the dock were only Hitler and several of his associates. The court sentenced Hitler for high treason to 5 years in prison and a fine of 200 gold marks. Hitler was serving his sentence in Landsberg prison . However, after 9 months, December 20, 1924, he was released ^[26] .

On the way to power

External video files
	Apocalypse. Rare color frames with Hitler. part. 1
	Apocalypse. Rare color frames with Hitler. part. 2

Hitler portrays a speaker at Hoffmann's shop, 1927

During the absence of the leader, the party broke up. Hitler had to practically start from scratch. A great help was given to him by Ryom, who began the restoration of the assault troops. However, Gregor Strasser , the leader of right-wing extremist movements in North and North-West Germany , played a decisive role in the revival of the NSDAP . By bringing them into the ranks of the NSDAP, he helped transform the party from a regional (Bavarian) into a nationwide political force.

In April 1925, Hitler renounced Austrian citizenship and until February 1932 was stateless.

In 1926, the Hitler Youth was founded , the highest leadership of the SA was established, and the conquest of “red Berlin” by Goebbels began . Hitler, meanwhile, was seeking support at the German level. He managed to gain the confidence of part of the generals, and also with the help of Fritz Thiessen establish contacts with industrial tycoons . At the same time, Hitler wrote his work Mine Kampf .

In 1930-1945 he was the Supreme Fuhrer of the SA .

When the parliamentary elections in 1930 and 1932 brought the Nazis a serious increase in deputy mandates, the ruling circles of the country began to seriously consider the NSDAP as a possible participant in government combinations. An attempt was made to remove Hitler from party leadership and bet on Strasser. However, Hitler was able to quickly isolate his associate and deprive him of any influence in the party. In the end, it was decided in the German upper classes to provide Hitler with the main administrative and political post, surrounding him (just in case) with guardians from traditional conservative parties.

In February 1932, Hitler decided to run for office in the German Reich President . On February 25, the Minister of the Interior of Braunschweig appointed him to the post of attache at the Braunschweig office in Berlin. This did not impose any official duties on Hitler, but automatically granted German citizenship and allowed him to participate in the elections ^[27] . Hitler took lessons in oratory and acting from opera singer Paul Defrint ( German:  Paul Devrient ), the Nazis organized a grand propaganda campaign. Hitler was the first German politician to travel by plane. In the first round of March 13Paul von Hindenburg gained 49.6% of the vote, and Hitler took second place with 30.1%. On April 10, in a second ballot, Hindenburg gained 53%, and Hitler - 36.8%. The third place was taken both times by the communist Telman ^[28] .

On June 4, 1932, the Reichstag was dissolved . In the July 7 elections, the NSDAP won a landslide victory, gaining 37.8% of the vote and gaining 230 seats in the Reichstag instead of the previous 143. The Social Democrats took second place - 21.9% and 133 seats in the Reichstag.

On November 6, 1932, early elections to the Reichstag were again held. This time, the NSDAP lost two million votes, gaining 33.1% and gained only 196 seats instead of the previous 230.

December 3, 1932 Reich Chancellor was appointed Kurt von Schleicher .

Hitler's meeting with Papen in the house of the banker Schroeder on January 4, 1933 served as the first step towards the creation of the Third Reich. Hitler offered von Papen the post of vice chancellor, and the German National People's Party proposed key ministries. Von Papen and Hindenburg still believed that in a government in which the majority are conservative ministers, they would be able to "encircle" and "tame" Reich Chancellor Hitler. Their alliance with Hitler isolated the Schleicher government. After General Werner von Blombergagreed to become the new Minister of War in the future government of Hitler, Schleicher completely lost the support of the Reichswehr and thereby his legal capacity. However, Hindenburg rejected his offer to hold new elections, and on January 28, 1933, Schleicher resigned. Hitler, Papen and Hindenburg meanwhile agreed on the composition of the government. This made it possible to appoint Hitler the Reich Chancellor.

Reich Chancellor and Head of State

Seizure of power

" Potsdam Day " - a solemn ceremony on March 21, 1933 on the occasion of the convocation of a new Reichstag

On January 30, 1933, Hindenburg accepted the resignation of Schleicher and appointed Hitler Chancellor of the Reich ^[29] .

With this appointment, Hitler has not yet gained power over the country. Firstly, only the Reichstag could make any laws in Germany, and Hitler’s party did not have the required number of votes. Secondly, in the party itself there was opposition to Hitler in the person of attack aircraft and their leader Ernst Rohm . And finally, thirdly, the president was the head of state, and the Reich Chancellor was just the head of the cabinet . However, in just a year and a half, Hitler removed all these obstacles and became an unlimited dictator.

February 27 (less than a month after the appointment of Hitler as Chancellor) there was a fire in the parliament building - the Reichstag . The official version of what happened said that the Dutch Communist Marinus van der Lubbe , who was captured during the extinguishing of the fire , was to blame . Circumstances remain unsolved to this day ^[30] .

Hitler announced a conspiracy of the Communist Party in order to seize power and the very next day after the fire presented two decrees to Hindenburg: “On the protection of the people and the state” and “Against the betrayal of the German people and the machinations of traitors to the homeland”, which he signed. The decree "On the protection of the people and the state" abolished seven articles of the constitution , limited freedom of speech, the press, meetings and rallies; allowed viewing correspondence and wiretapping phones. But the main result of this decree was a system of uncontrolled detention in concentration camps called "protective arrests." Using these decrees, the Nazis immediately arrested 4,000 prominent members of the Communist Party - their main adversary. After that, new elections were announced in the Reichstag.

Hitler in 1933

Hitler's main goal, formulated in his speeches, was to destroy the influence of Marxist parties. On March 2, in his speech at the Sports Palace, he said ^[31] :

Has this Marxism eradicated poverty where it won one hundred percent victory, where it reigns realistically and undividedly, in Russia? Reality speaks here in a truly amazing language. Millions of people died of starvation in a country that could become the breadbasket for the whole world ... They say "brotherhood." We know this brotherhood. Hundreds of thousands, and even millions of people were killed in the name of this fraternity, and as a result of great happiness <...> They also say that they have surpassed capitalism ... The capitalist world must give them loans, supply cars and equip factories, provide engineers and tenants at their disposal - all this should be done by this other world. They have no power to dispute this. And I could recommend a labor system for logging in Siberia for at least a week to those who dream about the implementation of this system in Germany.

In the March 5 election , the Nazi party received 43.9% of the vote and 288 seats in the Reichstag. The headless Communist Party lost 19 seats. However, such a composition of the Reichstag could not satisfy the Nazis. Then the Communist Party of Germany was banned by a special decree , and the mandates that were supposed to be given to the Communist deputies (81 seats) following the election results were canceled. In addition, some members of the SPD opposition to the Nazis were arrested or deported ^[32] . On March 24, 1933, the new Reichstag passed the Emergency Powers Act. According to this law, the government, headed by the Reich Chancellor, was given the authority to issue state laws (previously only the Reichstag could do this), and Article 2 indicated that laws issued in this way may contain derogations from the constitution.

On June 30, 1934, the Gestapo staged a mass pogrom against the SA attack aircraft , which went down in history as the Night of Long Knives . More than a thousand people were killed, among them the stormtrooper leader Ernst Rohm . Many people who had nothing to do with the SA were also killed, in particular Hitler's predecessor as Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and his wife.

On August 2, 1934, at nine in the morning, at the age of 86, the German President Hindenburg died. Three hours later, it was announced that in accordance with the law adopted by the cabinet the day before the president’s death, the functions of chancellor and president are combined in one person and that Adolf Hitler assumed the powers of head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president’s title was abolished; henceforth Hitler should be called the Fuhrer and the Reich Chancellor. Hitler demanded that all personnel of the armed forces swear allegiance not to Germany, not to the constitution, which he had violated by refusing to call the election of Hindenburg's successor, but to him personally ^[33] .

A referendum was held on August 19 , at which these actions were approved by 84.6% of the electorate ^[34] .

Domestic policy

Under Hitler's leadership, unemployment was sharply reduced . Large-scale humanitarian action was launched for people in need. Mass cultural and sports festivals were encouraged. The basis of the policy of the Hitler regime was preparation for a revenge for the lost World War I. To this end, industry was reconstructed, large-scale construction unfolded, and strategic reserves were created. In the spirit of revanchism , propaganda treatment of the population was carried out.

The Communist Party and then the Social Democratic Party were banned. A number of parties were forced to declare self-dissolution. The unions were liquidated, whose property was transferred to the Nazi labor front. Opponents of the new government without trial went to concentration camps ^[35] .

An important part of Hitler’s domestic policy was anti-Semitism . Mass persecution of Jews and Gypsies began . September 15 1935 the year were adopted by the Nuremberg racial laws , deprived of civil rights of the Jews; In the autumn of 1938, a pan-German Jewish pogrom ( Kristallnacht ) was organized . The development of this policy a few years later became the operation "endlezung" (the final solution of the Jewish question ), aimed at the physical destruction of the entire Jewish population. This policy, which Hitler first declared back in 1919 ^[36] , culminated in genocideJewish population, the decision about which was made already during the war (see Holocaust ).

The beginning of territorial expansion

Hitler and Mussolini

Shortly after coming to power, Hitler announced Germany's withdrawal from the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, limiting Germany's military efforts. The 100,000th Reichswehr was turned into the millionth Wehrmacht , armored forces were created and military aviation was restored. The status of the demilitarized Rhine zone was canceled .

In 1936 - 1939's Germany under the leadership of Hitler provided substantial assistance Frankists during the Spanish Civil War .

At this time, Hitler believed that he was seriously ill and would die soon , and began to hurry with the implementation of his plans. November 5, 1937 wrote a political testament, and May 2, 1938 - personal ^[5] .

March 13, 1938 there was an accession of Austria ( Anschluss ) to Nazi Germany. In the autumn of that year, in accordance with the Munich Agreement , part of the territory of Czechoslovakia  - the Sudetenland - was annexed . In March 1939, the Klaipeda Territory of Lithuania departed for Germany .

The magazine Time in its issue of January 2 1939 the year called Hitler a "man in 1938" ^[37] . The article dedicated to The Person of the Year began with Hitler's title, which, according to the magazine, reads as follows: “ Führer of the German people, Commander-in-Chief of the German Army, Navy & Air Force, Chancellor of the Third Reich Herr Hitler . " The final sentence of a rather lengthy article heralded:

Those who watched the final events of the year seemed more than likely that the 1938 Man could make the year 1939 unforgettable.

Original text  (English) [show]

To those who watched the closing events of the year it seemed more than probable that the Man of 1938 may make 1939 a year to be remembered.

The Third Reich in 1939 . Blue color indicates the so-called. The Old Reich ; blue - lands annexed in 1938 ; light blue - Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

In March 1939, the rest of the Czech Republic was occupied, turned into a satellite state of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Slovakia remained formally independent), as well as part of the territory of Lithuania , including Klaipeda ( Memel region ), was annexed . After that, Hitler presented territorial claims against Poland (first, on the provision of an extraterritorial road to East Prussia , and then on a referendum on the belonging of the Polish Corridor , in which people living in this territory as of 1918 should have participated )) The latter requirement was clearly unacceptable to the allies of Poland - Great Britain and France - which could serve as a basis for the brewing of the conflict.

The Second World War

Visit to captured Poland, 1939

These claims met with sharp rebuff. On April 3, 1939, Hitler approved a plan for an armed attack on Poland (Operation Weiss).

On August 23, 1939, Hitler concluded the Non-Aggression Treaty with the Soviet Union, the secret annex to which contained a plan for dividing the spheres of influence in Europe. On August 31, a provocation was organized in Glavice , which served as a pretext for an attack on Poland on September 1. It marked the beginning of World War II . Having defeated Poland during September, Germany occupied Norway, Denmark, Holland, Luxembourg and Belgium in April – May 1940 and invaded France . In June, Wehrmacht forces occupied Paris, and France surrendered. In the spring of 1941, Germany, under the leadership of Hitler, captured Greece and Yugoslavia, and on June 22 attacked the USSR. The defeats of the Soviet troops at the first stage of World War II led to the occupation by the German and allied forces of the republics of the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova and the western part of the RSFSR. A brutal occupation regime was established in the occupied territories , destroying many millions of people.

However, from the end of 1942, the German armies began to suffer major defeats both in the USSR ( Stalingrad ) and in Egypt ( El Alamein ). The following year, the Red Army went on the offensive, while Anglo-American troops landed in Italy and led it out of the war. In 1944, Soviet territory was liberated from occupation, the Red Army advanced into Poland and the Balkans; at the same time, Anglo-American troops, having landed in Normandy , liberated most of France. At the end of October 1944, hostilities were transferred to the territory of the Reich.

Attempts on Hitler

The first unsuccessful attempt on Adolf Hitler’s life took place in 1930 at the Kaiserhof. When Hitler came down from the rostrum after speaking to his supporters, an unknown man ran up to him and tried to spray his face with poison from a makeshift firing pen, but Hitler’s guards noticed the attacker in time and neutralized him.

• On March 1, 1932 , a group of four unknown people in the vicinity of Munich fired on a train in which Hitler was driving to speak to his supporters. Hitler was not injured.
• On June 2, 1932, a group of unidentified men fired from a car ambush on the road with Hitler in the vicinity of the city of Stralsund . Hitler was not injured again.
• On July 4, 1932, unknown people fired at a car with Hitler in Nuremberg . Hitler received a tangential wound to his arm.

During the 1933  - 1938 years on the life of Hitler was made 16 more attempts that ended in failure, including December 20 1936 the year a German Jew and former member of the " Black Front " Helmut Hirsch was going to lay two homemade bombs at the headquarters of the Nazi Party in Nuremberg , where Hitler was supposed to come on a visit. However, the plan failed, as Hirsch could not get around the guard. He was arrested by the Gestapo on December 21, 1936, and sentenced to death on April 22, 1937. Hirsch was executed on June 4, 1937 .

• On November 9, 1938, 22-year-old Maurice Bavo was about to shoot Hitler with a 6.5 mm semi-automatic Schmeisser pistol during a festive parade dedicated to the 15th anniversary of the Beer Coup . However, Hitler at the last moment changed the plan and went on the opposite side of the street, as a result of Bavo was unable to carry out his plan. Later, he also tried to get a personal meeting with Hitler using a fake letter of recommendation. However, he spent all his money and in early January 1939 decided to leave for Paris without a ticket. On the train, he was detained by Gestapo officers. On December 18, 1939, a court sentenced Bovo to death on the guillotine , andOn May 14, 1941, the sentence was carried out.
• On October 5, 1939, along the route of the Hitler motorcade in Warsaw, members of the SPP laid 500 kilograms of explosives, but for some unknown reason the bomb did not work.
• On November 8, 1939, in the Munich beer house Burgerbre , where Hitler spoke to NSDAP veterans every year, Johann Georg Elser , a former member of the Union of Red Front-line Soldiers ^[38] , the KPG combat organization, mounted a homemade explosive device with a clockwork in a column, in front of which a tribune for the leader was usually installed. As a result of the explosion, 8 people were killed and 63 wounded, but Hitler was not among the victims. Confining himself to a brief greeting to the audience, he left the room seven minutes before the explosion, since he needed to return to Berlin. That same evening, Elser was captured on the Swiss border and, after several interrogations, confessed to everything. As a “special prisoner”, he was placed in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp , then transferred to Dachau . On April 9, 1945, when the Allies were already near the concentration camp, by the order of Himmler, Elser was shot ^[39] .
• On May 15, 1942, a group of people attacked a Hitler train in Poland. Several Fuhrer guards were killed, as were all the attackers. Hitler was not injured.
• On March 13, 1943, when Hitler visited Smolensk, Colonel Henning von Treskov and his adjutant, Lieutenant von Schlabrendorf, planted a bomb in Hitler’s plane in a gift box with brandy , in which the explosive device did not work.
• March 21, 1943, when Hitler visited the exhibition of captured Soviet military equipment in Berlin, Colonel Rudolf von Gersdorf was supposed to blow himself up with Hitler. However, the Fuhrer left the exhibition ahead of schedule, and Gersdorf barely had time to neutralize the fuse.
• On July 14, 1944, British intelligence services were about to carry out Operation Foxley . According to the plan, the best British snipers were to shoot Hitler during his visit to the Berghof mountain residence in the Bavarian Alps . The plan was not finally approved, and its implementation did not take place.
• On July 20, 1944, a conspiracy was organized against Hitler , the purpose of which was to physically eliminate it and make peace with the advancing Allied forces. During the bombing, 4 people were killed, Hitler survived. After the assassination attempt, he was unable to stay on his feet all day, as more than 100 fragments were extracted from them. In addition, he had a dislocation of his right hand, his hair on the back of his head was singed and his eardrums were damaged. He was temporarily deaf in his right ear.

Death

There is no doubt that Hitler shot himself. Dr. Matthias Ull [40]

With the arrival of the Russians in Berlin, Hitler was afraid that the Reich Chancellery would be shot at with shells of gas and then flaunted in a cage in Moscow. Traudl Junge [41]

According to the testimony of witnesses questioned by both the Soviet counterintelligence agencies and the relevant Allied services, on April 30, 1945 , Hitler, together with his wife Eva Braun, committed suicide by killing her beloved Blondie’s dog in Berlin surrounded by Soviet troops . In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established that Hitler took poison ( potassium cyanide , like most Nazis who committed suicide). However, according to eyewitnesses, he shot himself. There is also a version according to which Hitler, taking in his mouth and biting the ampoule with poison, simultaneously shot himself with a pistol (thus using both death instruments).

"Hitler is dead." Title American military newspaper " Stars and Stripes "

According to witnesses from among the attendants, on the eve of Hitler gave the order to deliver gas cans from the garage (to destroy bodies). On April 30, after lunch, Hitler said goodbye to people from his inner circle and, shaking their hands, with Eva Brown retired to his apartment, from which a shot soon rang out. Soon after 15:15 (according to other sources^{[ what? ]} 15:30) Hitler's servant, Heinz Linge , accompanied by the adjutant of the Führer Otto Günsche , Goebbels, Bormann and Axmann, entered the apartments of the Führer. Dead Hitler was sitting on the couch; a bloody stain spread across his temple. Nearby lay Eva Brown, with no visible external damage. Günsche and Linge wrapped Hitler’s body in a soldier’s blanket and carried him into the garden of the Reich Chancellery; followed by the body of Eve. The bodies were laid near the entrance to the bunker, doused with gasoline and set on fire.

On May 5, 1945, corpses were found by a piece of blanket protruding from the ground by a group of guards of senior lieutenant A.A. Panasov and fell into the hands of SMERSH . General K.F. Telegin led the government commission for the identification of the remains. Colonel of the medical service F. I. Shkaravsky led the expert commission for the study of the remains. Hitler’s body was identified with the help of Kete Heusermann (Ketty Goiserman), Hitler’s dental assistant who confirmed the similarity of the dentures presented to her with Hitler’s dentures. However, having returned from the Soviet camps, she refused her testimony. In February 1946, the remains identified by the investigation as the bodies of Hitler, Eva Braun, Goebbels couple - Josef, Magda and their six children , General Krebs, as well as two dogs, were buried at one of the NKVD bases in Magdeburg . In 1970, when the territory of this base was to be transferred to the GDR , at the proposal of Yu. V. Andropov , approved by the Politburo, the remains were dug, cremated to ashes and then thrown into the Elbe ^{[42] [43]} (according to other sources, the remains were burned in a vacant lot near the town of Schoenebeck 11 km from Magdeburg and thrown into the river Biederitz ^[44]) Only dentures and part of Hitler's skull with the bullet inlet survived. They are stored in the Russian archives, as are the side arms of the sofa on which Hitler shot himself, with traces of blood. In an interview, the head of the FSB archives said that the authenticity of the jaw was proven by a number of international-level examinations ^[45] . Hitler's biographer Werner Mather expresses doubts that the discovered corpse and part of the skull really belonged to Hitler ^{[46] [47] [48]} . In September 2009, researchers at the University of Connecticut based on their DNA analysis stated that the skull belonged to a woman less than 40 years old ^[49]. FSB representatives issued a denial of the application ^[50] .

However, there is a popular urban legend that the bodies of Hitler and his wife's doubles were found in the bunker, and the Fuhrer himself and his wife allegedly hid in Argentina , where they lived quietly until the end of their days. Similar versions are put forward and proved even by some historians, including the British, Gerard Williams and Simon Dunsten ^[51] . However, the scientific community rejects such theories.

In July 2017, with the permission of the FSB of Russia, a team of French scientists from the University of Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines managed to gain access to Adolf Hitler’s tooth fragments, conduct a study and find out the cause of the Fuhrer’s death. The team leader, Professor Philippe Charlier, said that the teeth are genuine and belong to Hitler. Article published in the scientific journal ^[52], confirms the generally accepted theory of Hitler's death on April 30, 1945. Hitler took cyanide and shot himself in the head for safety. During the study, no traces of gunpowder were found on the teeth - it means that he shot not in the mouth, but in the forehead or neck, scientists concluded. Bluish spots were found on the prostheses - a chemical reaction between cyanide and metal led to this. According to the authors of the article, this once again destroys all the myths that Hitler could survive after the war ^[53] .

In April 2019, the FBI declassified documents stating that in September 1945 the secret service had some information about the Fuhrer’s flight to Argentina , which was stated in the official dossier, but the investigation was never conducted then, since the information was considered insufficient and inaccurate ^{[ 54] [55] [56] [57]} .

Beliefs and Habits

According to most biographers, Hitler was a vegetarian from 1931 (from the time of the suicide of Geli Raubal ) until his death in 1945. Some authors argue that Hitler only limited himself in eating meat.

He also had a negative attitude towards smoking; in Nazi Germany, a fight against this habit was unfolded . Once, when Hitler went to rest, the rest began to play cards and smoke. Hitler suddenly returned. Eva Brown's sister threw a burning cigarette in an ashtray and sat on it, since Hitler forbade smoking in his presence. Hitler noticed this and decided to joke. I went up to her and asked to explain the rules of the game in detail. In the morning, Eva, having learned everything from Hitler, asked her sister, “how are things with the bubbles from the burns on the priest” ^[5] .

Hitler with painful thoroughness took care of cleanliness. Panicky afraid of people with a runny nose. He did not tolerate familiarity ^[5] .

He was a man of low sociability. He considered others only when he needed them and did what he considered right. In letters, he was never interested in the opinions of others. He liked to use foreign words. I read a lot, even during the war. According to the personal doctor von Hasselbach, he always worked out at least one book every day. In Linz , for example, he enrolled in three libraries at once. At first I leafed through the book from the end. If he decided that the book was worth reading, he read in parts, only what he needed ^[5] .

Address in Munich

• Princeregentenplatz, 16, apt. 13 (or 15) - from the late 1920s to 1934 ^[58]

Interesting Facts

• Hitler dictated his speeches “in one breath”, directly to the typist. According to eyewitnesses, he delayed the dictation until the last minute; before dictation, he walked back and forth for a long time. Then Hitler began to dictate - actually make a speech - with outbursts of anger, gestures, etc. Two secretaries barely had time to record. Later, he worked for several hours, correcting the printed text ^[5] .
• In 1936 , during Hitler's chancellorship, Germany hosted the IV Winter Olympic Games and the XI Summer Olympic Games , which were held in the cities of Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Berlin . At the same time, he opened both the winter and summer games , thus Hitler became the first politician in the world to open the Olympic Games twice.
• The last lifetime filming of Hitler was made on March 20, 1945 and published in the German weekly review film magazine ( German:  Die deutsche Wochenschau ) of March 22, 1945. In it, in the garden of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler bypasses the system of distinguished members of the Hitler Youth . The last known lifetime photograph was taken, apparently, shortly before his birthday on April 20, 1945 ^[59] . On it, Hitler, accompanied by Adjutant Julius Schaub, inspects the ruins of the Reich Chancellery ^[60] .
• Anophthalmus hitleri  is a beetle named after Hitler and has become rare due to its popularity with neo-Nazis ^[61] .

The image of Adolf Hitler in the movie

Artistic

The image of Hitler is reflected in numerous feature films. In some of them, he plays a key role, in particular: “ Hitler: The Last Ten Days ”, “ Bunker ”, “ Hitler: The Ascent of the Devil ”, “ My Struggle ” and others.

Documentary

• “The timeline. The Becoming of Adolf Hitler ”( born  Time watch. The Making of Adolf Hitler ) is a documentary film shot by the BBC in 2002.
• "Adolf Gitler. The Way to Power ”is a 3-episode documentary by Edward Radzinsky , filmed in 2011.

Grades

• “His voice is nothing but his own unconscious, into which the Germans projected themselves; it is the unconscious of seventy-eight million Germans ”( Karl Gustav Jung ) ^[62] .
• “He was a warrior, a fighter who fought for all of humanity, a herald of universal justice. Hitler was a reformer of enormous proportions, but his historical fate was such that he lived during an unprecedented rudeness and barbarism, and this struck him ”( Knut Gamsun ) ^[63] .
• “The Third Reich of Corporal Hitler therefore inevitably became a state of cruel guys who had barely grown from adolescents. And the teenagers who returned from the meat grinder of the war are monsters. From the suicidal torment of young Werthers and Kleist lieutenants to death camps, the journey was only a century old. The path from the picturesque bandits to the ice killers of the SS. Hitler is the legitimate son of Germany, that is what I want to say. Adolf Hitler - the last German romantic ”( Eduard Limonov ) ^[64] .
• “A born leader, a magnetic, dynamic personality, purposeful, with decisive will and fearless heart” ( David Lloyd George ) ^[65] .

see also

Notes

Comments

Sources

Literature

References

• Adolf Hitler in the Open Directory Project Link Directory (dmoz)  (Eng.)
• Robert Wilde "What did Hitler Believe?"  - A brief overview of the ideology of Hitlerism  (English)